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GRAMMAR  LESSONS 


A  SECOND  BOOK  IN  ENGLISH 


BY 


WILBUR     FISK    GORDY 

PRINCIPAL   OF   THE    NORTH    SCHOOL 
HARTFORD,    CONN. 


AND 

WILLIAM   EDWARD   MEAD 

PROFESSOR    OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE 
WESLEYAN   UNIVERSITY 


NEW   YORK 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 
1904 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

EDUCATION  DEPT, 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

PRINTING  AND   BOOKBINDING  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

THE  advisability  of  teaching  English  grammar  in 
the  elementary  school  has  of  late  years  been  much 
debated.  Some  teachers  maintain  that  too  much  time 
is  devoted  to  the  subject,  and  some  find  no  place  for 
it  in  grades  below  the  high  school.  At  present  the 
general  trend  of  educational  opinion  decidedly  favors 
the  teaching  of  at  least  the  rudiments  of  technical 
grammar  in  the  higher  elementary  grades.  There  is, 
however,  a  growing  conviction  that  the  unavoidable 
difficulties  of  the  subject  have  been  needlessly  increased 
in  many  cases  by  dealing  too  much  with  mere  abstrac- 
tions, and  by  dwelling  upon  a  multitude  of  relatively 
unimportant  details. 

The  aim  of  the  present  book  is  so  to  simplify  the 
subject  as  to  bring  it  within  the  comprehension  of 
grammar-school  pupils.  It  therefore  takes  little  ac- 
count of  matters  of  secondary  importance,  and  lays 
emphasis  upon  the  fundamental  principles  underlying 
the  expression  of  thought  in  English.  Part  I  is  de- 
voted to  a  simple  exposition  of  such  matters  as  can 
in  no  case  be  omitted.  Part  II  contains  a  fuller  state- 
ment of  the  principles  outlined  in  Part  I,  and  a  more 
copious  body  of  exercises  and  other  illustrative  matter. 

S4M52 


vi  PREFACE 

No  effort  has  been  spared  to  bring  the  pupil,  by 
means  of  carefully  graded  exercises,  to  understand 
clearly  what  a  sentence  is,  as  distinguished  from  a 
phrase  or  a  clause,  and  also  to  recognize  the  various 
kinds  of  sentences  that  he  spontaneously  employs  in 
his  everyday  speech.  Hence  there  have  been  presented 
at  the  outset  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  sentence— 
the  complete  subject  and  the  complete  predicate.  The 
elements  that  appear  in  more  complicated  sentence 
structure  are  then  considered. 

The  analysis  of  the  sentence  into  its  component  ele- 
ments naturally  involves  the  classification  of  words  as 
parts  of  speech.  In  the  explanation  of  this  classifica- 
tion repeated  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  function  of  a 
word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  in  a  sentence,  as  determin- 
ing what  part  of  speech  each  represents.  The  func- 
tional character  of  every  part  of  a  sentence  cannot  be 
too  often  emphasized,  since  English  is,  in  the  main, 
an  analytic  rather  than  a  synthetic  language,  and  the 
grammatical  character  of  each  element  in  a  sentence 
is  in  most  cases  indicated  by  its  relations  to  other 
words.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  extremely  scanty  in- 
flectional variation  of  English  words,  our  language  is 
in  large  measure  a  language  of  phrases,  and  the  ad- 
jectival or  adverbial  nature  of  each  phrase  must  be 
determined  according  to  the  work  each  has  to  do.  A 
special  effort  has  therefore  been  made  to  lead  the  pupil 
to  appreciate  the  prime  importance  of  the  phrase  as  a 
means  of  expressing  fine  shades  of  meaning. 

Analysis  of  essential  relations,  as  already  suggested, 


PREFACE  vii 

is  a  central  feature  of  the  present  book,  but  detailed 
formal  parsing  has  been  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
This  course  has  been  adopted  in  the  belief  that  the 
essentials  in  the  study  of  English  grammar  are  few, 
but  that  these  must  be  so  impressed  upon  the  pupil 
that  he  shall  be  unable  to  escape  or  to  forget  them. 
Accordingly,  in  the  parsing  exercises  special  stress  has 
been  laid  upon  the  case  relations  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns, upon  the  grammatical  character  and  relations 
of  phrases  and  clauses,  upon  the  tenses  of  verbs,  and 
the  relation  of  a  verb  to  its  subject  or  its  object.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  little  space  has  been  devoted  to 
complicated  rules  with  numerous  unimportant  excep- 
tions, and  to  elaborate  formulae  dealing  with  minor 
details.  The  system  of  diagrams  suggested  for  use  in 
graphic  analysis  is  extremely  simple  and  is  designed 
to  save  time  for  pupil  and  teacher  alike.  In  the  first 
place,  it  enables  the  pupil  to  indicate  by  a  line  or  two 
the  relations  of  the  various  elements  that  compose 
the  sentence;  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  enables  the 
teacher  to  assign  to  large  classes  definite  tasks  that 
can  be  rapidly  and  easily  examined.  But  this  system 
of  graphic  analysis  has  obvious  limitations.  The  at- 
tempt to  take  account  in  a  diagram  of  all  the  ramifica- 
tions of  long  and  involved  sentences  is  sometimes  as 
unwise  as  the  attempt  to  reproduce  in  a  map  every 
minute  difference  in  elevation. 

On  the  constructive  side  the  aim  throughout  the 
book  has  been  to  lead  the  pupil  to  use  his  grammatical 
knowledge  as  an  aid  in  expressing  his  thoughts  with 


viii  PREFACE 

clearness  and  accuracy.  The  exercises  have  been  made 
as  practical  as  possible,  and  the  principle  involved  in 
each  has  been  repeatedly  put  to  the  test  in  the  class- 
room. Experience  has  shown  that  by  skilful  and  pa- 
tient training  almost  any  pupil  can  be  made  to  see 
that  consciously  or  unconsciously  he  must  conform  to 
grammatical  principles  whenever  he  speaks  or  writes, 
and  that  even  so  apparently  arbitrary  a  matter  as 
punctuation  is  rational  and  simple  when  approached 
with  a  thorough  grounding  in  the  elements  of  gram- 
mar. But  this  desirable  result  will  not  be  accomplished 
in  the  elementary  school  unless  fine-spun  subtleties  and 
needless  technicalities  are  studiously  avoided.  The 
competent  teacher  will  limit  the  field  to  matters  of  the 
first  importance ;  he  will  be  content  to  do  one  thing  at 
a  time,  and  he  will  "  make  haste  slowly." 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER 

THE  teaching  of  English  grammar  in  the  elementary  school 
presents  more  than  one  knotty  problem,  even  to  the  teacher 
of  long  experience.  No  apology,  therefore,  need  be  offered 
for  calling  attention  to  some  matters  of  fundamental  impor- 
tance for  the  successful  treatment  of  the  subject. 

Without  doubt,  one  reason  why  many  boys  and  girls 
heartily  dislike  grammar  is  that  they  find  themselves  con- 
fronted with  difficulties  beyond  their  comprehension.  The 
logical  powers  of  grammar-school  pupils  are  too  immature 
for  the  analysis  of  complicated  sentences  written  in  a  style 
far  above  their  habitual  modes  of  expression.  If,  therefore, 
such  work  is  forced  upon  them,  they  naturally  evade  it  as  far 
as  they  can,  for  they  feel  that  in  large  measure  they  are  deal- 
ing with  masses  of  unmeaning  words. 

But  grammar  is  far  too  important  both  as  a  discipline  and 
as  a  practical  instrument  to  deserve  to  be  regarded  as  some- 
thing out  of  all  relation  to  everyday  speech.  Pupils  can,  we 
believe,  be  made  to  see  that  grammar  is  a  study  full  of  interest 
and  profit,  but,  in  most  cases,  such  a  result  is  possible  only 
through  a  method  of  presentation  that  proceeds  very  gradu- 
ally and  illuminates  every  principle  with  an  abundance  of 
concrete  ilustrations. 

The  present  book  has  been  carefully  constructed  on  the 
inductive  plan.  In  the  explanation  of  fundamental  prin- 
ciples there  has  been  introduced  a  large  amount  of  illustrative 


x  SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER 

matter  leading  up  to  a  generalized  statement.  But,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  teacher  must  be  ready  at  any  point  to  furnish 
supplementary  matter  such  as  a  class  may  require.  A  suffi- 
cient number  of  concrete  examples  to  illustrate  every  gram- 
matical principle  for  every  sort  of  pupil  would  expand  a 
text-book  to  a  size  far  too  bulky  for  convenient  handling. 
Yet  such  illustrative  material  is  easy  to  find,  for  it  lies 
abundantly  at  hand  in  readers,  histories,  and  other  text- 
books. Moreover,  there  is  a  greater  amount  of  such  matter 
in  this  grammar  itself  than  may  at  first  appear.  As  is  sug- 
gested at  various  points,  a  set  of  examples  may  be  used  for 
some  purpose  in  addition  to  the  one  in  view  in  the  special 
exercise  where  they  occur.  There  should,  then,  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  finding  abundance  of  illustration  for  every  principle 
discussed  in  this  book. 

The  definitions,  based  upon  the  examples,  have  been 
framed  with  unusual  care,  but  we  hope  that  the  teacher  will 
not  require  them  to  be  learned  until  they  are  thoroughly 
understood.  When,  however,  the  meaning  is  firmly  grasped, 
each  definition  should  be  memorized  as  a  compact  statement 
of  a  truth  embodied  in  the  examples. 

As  for  the  exercises,  some  are  designed  to  illustrate  prin- 
ciples, and  some  to  test  the  pupil's  grasp  of  the  subject  by 
requiring  him  to  put  his  knowledge  to  actual  use  in  sentences 
of  his  own.  Nothing  is  better  than  actual  sentence  construc- 
tion by  the  pupil  as  a  means  of  fixing  a  principle  in  mind. 

Pupils  will,  as  a  rule,  not  make  satisfactory  progress  in 
their  study  of  grammar  unless  they  have  frequent  practice 
in  selecting  the  various  parts  of  speech.  We  recommend, 
therefore,  that  additional  exercises  of  this  sort  be  introduced 
by  the  teacher  whenever  a  class  shows  the  need  of  such  drill. 

Parsing  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.     But  we  beg  the 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER  xi 

teacher  not  to  waste  time  in  going  through  a  monotonous 
formula  in  which  all  the  properties  of  a  given  part  of  speech 
are  enumerated,  when  the  thing  desired  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
essential  part  which  the  word  plays  in  the  sentence.  We 
therefore  suggest  that  the  abbreviated  form  of  parsing,  out- 
lined on  page  268,  be  taken  up  as  soon  as  the  formal  parsing 
is  understood. 

Pupils  must  somehow  learn  punctuation.  But  most  pupils 
will  be  unlikely  to  understand  the  reason  for  punctuation 
unless  they  are  taught  that  it  has  value  only  in  so  far  as  it 
aids  in  making  thought  clear.  We  have  therefore  endeavored 
to  connect  the  principles  of  punctuation  with  the  principles 
of  grammar.  This  matter  deserves  special  attention,  and 
should  receive  further  illustration  at  the  hands  of  the  teacher. 
Dictation  exercises  are  particularly  valuable  for  this  side  of 
the  work.  For  convenient  reference,  the  scattered  suggestions 
on  punctuation  are  gathered  together  in  the  Appendix,  and 
should  be  thoroughly  learned. 

Intelligent  review  is  of  great  value  in  all  study  of  lan- 
guage, and  it  has  received  careful  attention  throughout  this 
book.  In  Part  III  wrill  be  found,  in  addition  to  the  occasional 
reviews,  a  comprehensive  series  of  review  exercises  dealing  with 
all  the  important  aspects  of  the  subject.  This  portion  of 
the  book  will  doubtless  be  especially  welcome  to  more  than 
one  practical  teacher. 

If  studied  according  to  right  methods,  grammar  should 
no  longer  be  a  lifeless,  repulsive  study,  but  one  of  genuine 
interest.  Yet,  however  carefully  planned  a  text-book  may 
be,  and  however  skilled  the  teacher,  the  study  of  mere  gram- 
matical principles  will  never  of  itself  result  in  giving  the 
learner  the  power  of  habitually  correct  speech.  It  may  enable 
him  to  see  what  his  mistakes  are  and  to  make  the  corrections. 


xii  SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER 

But  he  must  go  a  step  further,  and  develop  right  habits  of 
speech  by  persistently  repeating  the  correct  forms  and  ex- 
pressions. We  have  suggested  exercises  for  such  repetition, 
but  not  so  many  as  may  in  some  cases  be  necessary.  This  is 
a  matter  that  must  be  left  in  large  measure  to  the  discretion 
of  the  teacher. 

The  value  of  well-directed  work  in  grammar  appears  in 
one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  that  pupils  in  elementary 
schools  have  to  do,  that  is,  the  expression  of  their  thoughts 
in  correct  sentences.  As  an  aid  to  accuracy  of  expression, 
the  study  of  grammar  may  be  made  invaluable.  A  pupil  will, 
of  course,  use  all  sorts  of  sentences  and  all  sorts  of  phrases 
and  clauses  long  before  he  knows  what  they  are  to  be  called. 
But  unquestionably  he  will  use  them  with  far  greater  pre- 
cision when  he  has  learned  to  recognize  each  without  hesita- 
tion. For  drill  in  this  kind  of  work,  lessons  may  be  given  in 
selecting  phrases,  clauses,  and  various  kinds  of  sentences  from 
the  best  literature. 

More  than  all  this,  no  pains  should  be  spared  by  the  teacher 
in  bringing  pupils  to  a  realization  of  what  constitutes  a  really 
good  sentence.  Mere  correctness  is  not  always  enough.  A 
grammatically  correct  sentence  may  be  intolerably  stiff  and 
involved,  and  it  may  violate  all  canons  of  good  taste.  The 
ultimate  test  of  expression  is  to  be  found  in  the  conversation 
of  cultured,  though  not  always  bookish,  people,  and  in  the 
works  of  the  orators,  the  poets,  the  essayists,  the  novelists, 
the  historians, — in  short,  in  every  utterance,  whether  spoken 
or  written,  that  presents  a  thought  in  the  form  that  the  occa- 
sion requires.  Familiarity  with  the  best  forms  of  expression 
will  supply  a  standard  to  which  one's  speech  and  writing  will 
gradually  conform.  As  an  aid  in  the  quick  apprehension  of 
grammatical  principles,  nothing  will  be  of  more  service  than 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER          xiii 

the  habit  of  reading  well-chosen  books.  No  teacher  of  gram- 
mar can  afford  to  neglect  this  incomparable  help.  In  other 
words,  every  teacher  of  grammar  should  be,  in  a  sense,  a 
teacher  of  literature.  An  incidental  suggestion  in  the  class- 
room now  and  then  may  yield  unexpectedly  large  results. 
Above  all,  the  teacher  of  grammar  should  cultivate  a  form 
of  speech  at  once  easy  and  accurate,  but  not  unduly  prim  or 
affectedly  pedantic.  If  the  teacher  is  careless  or  over-careful, 
pupils  can  hardly  be  blamed  for  imitating  their  daily  model. 
In  the  matter  of  equipment,  it  is  obvious  that  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  history  of  the  language  will  prove  of 
great  advantage  to  the  teacher  of  grammar.  Many  of  the 
mysteries  of  exceptional  forms  and  apparent  anomalies  of 
syntax  are  readily  understood  when  one  has  a  sound,  even 
though  elementary,  knowledge  of  the  language  in  the  early 
formative  periods. 


A    FEW    WORDS    TO    THE    PUPIL 

IF  you  will  consider  for  a  moment  the  language  that  you 
hear  and  read,  you  will  observe  that  the  English  in  use  is 
not  all  of  the  same  sort.  Some  of  it  is  English  of  an  old 
type,  such  as  appears  in  the  Bible  and  in  the  language  of 
prayer  and  poetry.  The  older  fashion  of  speech  is  preserved 
in  such  forms  as  "  thou  hast  heard,"  "  he  hath  wrought," 
"  we  be  brethren,"  "  he  spake,"  and  many  others.  These 
expressions  are  now  used  in  what  we  call  the  solemn  style, 
and  do  not  appear  in  conversation  or  in  ordinary  writing. 
Hundreds  of  years  ago,  however,  these  were  common  forms. 
We  are  chiefly  concerned  in  this  book  with  the  English  of 
our  own  time. 

In  the  works  of  the  best  modern  authors  we  find  our  stand- 
ard of  written  English.  As  a  usual  thing,  one  writes  more 
carefully  than  one  talks,  and  if  the  form  of  expression  when 
first  written  is  not  satisfactory,  it  can  be  corrected.  But  the 
real  language  is,  after  all,  the  language  that  is  spoken,  and 
it  is  used  by  every  one  long  before  he  learns  to  write.  The 
language  of  books  is  at  best  only  an  imperfect  reflection  of 
spoken  language.  All  language,  however,  whether  spoken  or 
written,  is  bound  to  conform  to  the  principles  that  govern 
its  structure.  In  other  words,  it  must  obey  the  rules  of 
grammar. 

This  term  calls  for  a  word  of  explanation.  When  a  speaker 
or  writer  disregards  accepted  forms  of  expression  that  have 

xiv 


A    FEW    WORDS    TO   THE  PUPIL  xv 

been  slowly  taking  shape  for  hundreds  of  years,  we  say  that 
his  language  is  ungrammatical.  But  grammar  is  not  a  mere 
set  of  rules  invented  for  the  sake  of  showing  us  how  to  speak 
and  write  correctly.  It  is,  rather,  a  statement  of  the  actual 
practice  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers  in  the  use  of  their 
mother  tongue.1  What  we  mean,  then,  by  saying  that  some 
one  has  violated  a  rule  of  grammar,  is  not  merely  that  he  has 
broken  a  rule  found  in  some  text-book,  but  that  he  has  put 
words  together  in  a  way  that  the  best  speakers  or  writers  are 
careful  to  avoid.  It  is  with  language  somewhat  as  it  is  with 
manners.  One  may  learn  rules  of  deportment  out  of  a  book, 
but  one's  bad  manners  are  condemned,  not  because  some  book 
pronounces  them  bad,  but  because  they  are  at  variance  with 
accepted  standards  of  propriety. 

What  you  should  therefore  try  to  do  is  to  become  familiar 
with  the  best  forms  of  English.  If  you  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  live  among  cultured  people,  and  have  read  much 
good  literature,  you  have  unconsciously  learned  in  large 
measure  what  the  best  usage  is.  In  your  case  the  study  of 
grammar  will  be  of  service  mainly  in  confirming  you  in  your 
already  correct  habits  of  speech.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you 
have  been  less  favored  in  your  early  associations,  you  will 
find  grammar  of  great  use  in  acquainting  you  with  those 
forms  of  speech  which  are  most  worthy  of  imitation. 

But  no  mere  learning  of  rules — important  though  they 
are — will  make  you  accurate  in  your  use  of  language.  That 
must  be  the  result  of  long  practice  and  patient  attention  to 
more  than  one  little  detail.  The  particular  errors  that  you 
commit  you  may  well  jot  down  in  a  note-book  as  your  atten- 

1  Historical  grammar  takes  account  of  the  forms  of  words  and  of  sen- 
tences in  earlier  centuries,  and  shows  how  our  present  forms  have  grown  out 
of  them. 


xvi  A    FEW    WORDS    TO   THE   PUPIL 

tion  is  called  to  them.  You  should  then  drill  yourself  in  the 
use  of  the  correct  forms  of  expression  until  they  seem  as 
natural  to  you  as  the  incorrect  forms.  The  process  of  self- 
correction  may  be  slow,  but  you  must  persist  in  it  unless  you 
are  willing  to  be  classed  among  the  illiterate. 

Self-interest,  to  say  nothing  of  any  higher  motive,  should 
lead  you  to  spare  no  effort  to  master  the  principles  that  are 
involved  in  every  sentence  you  speak  or  write.  Those  prin- 
ciples you  will  find  outlined  in  the  present  book.  The  amount 
of  text  to  be  learned  is  comparatively  small.  The  number  of 
exercises  to  be  worked  out  in  application  of  the  principles 
explained  in  the  text  is  comparatively  large.  Nothing  that 
is  here  presented  is  unimportant,  and  there  is  nothing  that 
you  can  afford  to  leave  unmastered.  You  need  not  be  stiff 
and  formal  in  your  conversation  and  "  talk  like  a  book,"  but 
you  should  strive  for  that  easy  and  natural  utterance  which 
is  one  of  the  surest  marks  of  good  breeding. 


CONTENTS 

PAGES 

PREFACE .       ...     v-viii 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER                .       .       .        .   ix-xiii 
A  FEW  WORDS  TO  THE  PUPIL, xiv-xvi 

PART    I 

CHAPTEB 

I.  The  Sentence 1-5 

II.  The  Subject  of  the  Sentence     ....       6-8 

III.  The  Predicate  of  the  Sentence    ....     8-11 

IV.  The  Subject  and  the  Predicate         .        .        .  11-12 

V.  The  Noun 12-16 

VI.  The  Pronoun 16-19 

VII.  The  Adjective 19-21 

VIII.  The  Adjective  Phrase 21-23 

IX.  The  Possessive  Form  of  the  Noun     .        .        .  23-26 

X.  The  Appositive 26-28 

XI.  The  Simple  Subject  and  the  Complete  Sub- 
ject   28-30 

XII.  A  Review 30-31 

XIII.  The  Verb         ........  31-33 

XIV.  The  Verb-Phrase 33-35 

XV.  The  Transitive  Verb 35-37 

XVI.  The  Intransitive  Verb 37-39 

XVII.  The  Copula 40-43 

XVIII.  The  Predicate  Noun 43-44 

XIX.  The  Predicate  Adjective      .....  44-46 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

XX.  The  Adverb 46-48 

XXI.  The  Adverbial  Phrase      ....  48-50 
XXII.  The  Preposition  and  the  Prepositional 

Phrase 51-55 

XXIII.  The  Noun  Used  as  an  Adverb       .        .  55-57 

XXIV.  The  Indirect  Object  of  the  Transitive 

Verb 57-59 

XXV.  The   Simple   Predicate   and   the   Com- 
plete Predicate 59-61 

XXVI.  A  Review 62 

XXVII.  Nouns  Used  Independently  by  Direct 

Address 62-64 

XXVIII.  The  Interjection 64-65 

XXIX.  The  Clause         .       .       .       .       .       .  66-68 

XXX.  The  Clause  Used  as  an  Adjective  .       .  68-7Q 

XXXI.  The  Clause  Used  as  an  Adverb      .       .  70-72 

XXXII.  The  Clause  Used  as  a  Noun     .       .       .  72-73 

XXXIII.  The  Complex  Sentence    ....  74-77 

XXXIV.  The  Compound  Sentence        .       .       .  77-80 
XXXV.  Conjunctions 80-83 

XXXVI.  Simple  Sentence  with  Compound  Ele- 
ments         84-86 

XXXVII.  Words    Used    as    Various    Parts    of 

Speech 86-90 

XXXVIII.  Oral  and  Graphic  Analysis      .       .        .  90-96 
XXXIX.  For  Review,  For  Analysis,  and  For  the 

Selection  of  Parts  of  Speech     .        .  96-98 


CONTENTS  xix 

PART    II 

PAGES 

INTRODUCTION  99-100 

CHAPTEB 

XL.  The  Sentence 101-103 

XLI.  The   Simple   Subject   and   the   Complete 

Subject 103-104 

XLII.  The  Simple  Predicate  and  the  Complete 

Predicate 104-105 

XLIIL  The  Noun 105-109 

XLIV.  Number  of  Nouns 109-114 

XLV.  Gender 115-116 

XL VI.  Case  ........  117-118 

XL VII.  The  Nominative  Case 118-120 

XLVIII.  The  Possessive  Case       .....  120-123 

XLIX.  A  Review 123-124 

L.  The  Objective  Case 124-125 

LI.  Personal  Pronouns 126-131 

LII.  Relative  Pronouns 131-137 

LIII.  Interrogative  Pronouns         ....  137-138 

LIV.  The  Adjective 139-141 

LV.  Comparison  of  Adjectives    ....  141-146 

LVI.  Articles 146-147 

LVII.  Pronouns  Used  as  Adjectives      .        .        .  148-152 

LVIII.  A  Review 153-154 

LIX.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs       .       .  154-155 

LX.  Voice 156-160 

LXI.  Tense 160-164 

LXII.  Person  and  Number  of  Verbs     .       .       .  164-168 
LXIII.  Special  Rules  for  Person  and  Number  of 

Verbs  168-171 

LXIV.  Verbal  Nouns  .  171-178 


XX 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGES 

LXV.  The  Participle  a  Verbal  Adjective     .  178-182 

LXVI.  The  Verbal  Noun  and  the  Participle  .  182-184 

LXVII.  Strong  and  Weak  Verbs       .        .        .   185-187 

LXVIII.  Principal  Parts  of  Verbs      .        .        .  188-189 

LXIX.  Forms    of    the    Present,    Past,    and 

Future  Tenses 189-190 

LXX.  Shall  and  Will 190-194 

LXXI.  The  Complete  Tenses     ....  194-195 
LXXII.  The     Formation     of    the     Complete 

Tenses  .       .       .       .        .        .  195-198 

LXXIII.  A  Review 198  199 

LXXIV.  Difficult  Verb-Forms      .       .       .       .  199-203 

LXXV.  Mood         .       .       ...       .       .  203-205 

LXXVI.  The   Indicative   and   the   Imperative 

Moods 205-209 

LXXVII.  The  Subjunctive  Mood         .       .       .  209-217 
LXXVIII.  Conjugation  of  the  Active  Voice       .  218-222 

LXXIX.  The  Passive  Voice 223-226 

LXXX.  Conjugation  of  Move  in  the  Passive 

Voice 226-230 

LXXXI.  Auxiliary  Verbs 230-233 

LXXXII.  Potential  Verb-Phrases          .       .        .  233-238 

LXXXIII.  Progressive  Verb-Phrases      .        .        .  238-241 

LXXXIV.  Do  and  Did  as  Auxiliaries    .        .        .  241-243 

LXXXV.  Defective  and  Impersonal  Verbs  .        .  243-246 

LXXXVI.  A  Review 246-247 

LXXXVII.  The  Nominative  Absolute     .        .        .  248-250 
LXXX VIII.  The  Objective  Complement          .        .  250-253 

LXXXIX.  The  Adverb 254-261 

XC.  The    Predicate    Nominative    and    the 

Predicate  Adjective          .        .        .  262-266 


CONTENTS  xxi 

CHAPTEB  PAGES 

XCI.  Words  Used  as  Various  Parts  of  Speech    .  266 

XCII.  Parsing 266-268 

XCIII.  A  Review  269 


PART    III 

XCIV.  For    Parsing,    Analysis,    and    a    General 

Review  270-281 

APPENDIX 

STRONG  AND  WEAK  VERBS 283-295 

HINTS  ON  PUNCTUATION  .  295-300 


GRAMMAR  LESSONS 
PART  I 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  SENTENCE 

In  Book  I  a  sentence  was  defined  as  a  complete 
thought  expressed  in  words.  We  have  now  to  see  what 
various  kinds  of  sentences  there  are.  In  a  sentence  we 
may  simply  assert  something,  as,  "The  wind  is  blow- 
ing." We  may  ask  a  question,  "Is  the  wind  blowing!" 
We  may  order  something  done,  "Come  in  out  of  the 
wind."  We  may  express  surprise  or  strong  feeling, 
"How  the  wind  blows!"  "How  sorry  I  am  that  you 
had  to  walk  through  such  a  wind!" 

These  kinds  of  sentences  we  will  now  take  up  and 
discuss  more  fully. 

THE  DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE 

If  we  write  the  single  word,  captain,  we  do  not  tell 
what  we  wish  to  say  about  him.  Even  if  we  write, 

The  captain  of  the  steamer 

The  captain  of  the  large  ocean  steamer 


£  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

we  have  not  told  anything  outright,  and  hence  we  have 
not  made  a  sentence.    But  if  we  write, 

"The  captain  stood,"  we  assert  something  about  him. 
We  can  thus  say  various  things  about  the  captain,— 

The  captain  stood. 

The  captain  of  the  steamer  stood. 

The  captain  of  the  large  ocean  steamer  stood  on  the  deck. 

The  captain  had  a  heavy  gray  beard. 

All  these  sentences  tell  something  definite  about  the 
captain. 


sentence  that  tells  or  asserts  something  is  called 
a  Declarative  Sentence. 

Exercise  1 

In  the  following  sentences  you  will  see  that  each  tells 
you  something  about  some  person  or  thing:— 

The  country  was  rolling  and  wooded.  From  the  foot  of  a 
long  hill  a  wide  plain  extended  to  the  sea.  Far  away  the  roar 
of  a  great  waterfall  was  heard.  The  air  was  cool.  The  sky 
was  overcast.  Soon  the  rain  began  to  pour  down  from  the 
heavy  gray  clouds.  After  a  little  the  wind  came  up.  Then 
the  sun  peeped  out.  The  sails  of  the  black  windmill  went 
swiftly  round.  Up  the  hill  came  a  shabby  old  man.  He  was 
evidently  a  stranger.  His  lips  were  pale  and  closely  pressed 
together.  But  his  eyes  sparkled  at  sight  of  a  clean,  well-kept 
farm-house  in  the  distance. 

What  person  or  thing  does  the  first  sentence  in  this 
exercise  tell  about!  What  does  it  tell  about  the  coun- 


THE    INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCE  3 

try?    Ask  similar  questions  for  each  of  the  remaining 
sentences.    For  example,  What  "extended  to  the  sea"? 

Exercise  2 

Before  the  open  fire  lay  a  large  black  cat.  The  shadows  of 
the  chairs  danced  like  ghosts  in  the  light  of  the  flames  curling 
over  the  great  logs.  But  the  glossy  cat  considered  none  of 
these  things.  With  untiring  gaze  she  watched  a  small  hole 
behind  one  of  the  doors.  Presently  a  faint  scratching  of  little 
feet  was  heard  behind  the  casement.  Two  bright  eyes  and  a 
sharp  gray  nose  peered  out  from  the  hole.  The  shadows  went 
on  dancing.  The  cat  lay  still  as  if  asleep.  The  eyes  came 
nearer.  There  was  a  sudden  spring,  a  squeak,  and  then  all  was 
still  again. 

What  lay  before  the  open  fire !  What  did  a  large  black 
cat  do  I  Ask  similar  questions  for  each  of  the  remain- 
ing sentences. 

Exercise  3 

Reproduce  a  short  story  from  your  reader.  Before  beginning 
to  write,  think  carefully  about  what  you  are  to  say.  Write  short 
sentences,  and  say  something  definite  in  each. 

NOTE. — An  exercise  of  this  sort  affords  a  good  opportunity  for  work 
in  composition  and  in  grammar.  One  or  two  of  the  best  of  the  stories 
may  be  copied  on  the  blackboard  and  used  as  additional  material  for 
training  pupils  in  the  selection  of  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  sentences. 

THE  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCE 

In  the  sentences,  ' '  Have  you  any  news  for  me ! ' '  ' '  Do 
you  believe  this  report?"  "Did  you  see  him!"  we  ask 


4  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

questions.     All  such  sentences  are  called  Interrogative. 
Note  the  following:— 

Is  that  our  carriage?  Is  father  coming?  Do  you  see 
him?  Where  is  he  now?  Do  you  know  that  other  man? 
Which  one  do  you  mean?  What  is  his  name?  Have  you 
forgotten  it?  Isn't  that  your  old  gardener?  What  do  you 
suppose  he  is  doing  here?  Shall  I  ask  him  to  come  in?  Is 
that  a  book  in  his  hand?  What  has  he  to  do  with  books? 

An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  used  to  ask  a  question. 

Exercise  1± 

Write  flye  interrogative  sentences,  in  each  of  which  you  ask  a 
question  about  some  city  in  your  State;  five  in  which  you  ask 
questions  about  the  rivers  of  your  State ;  and  five  declarative  sen- 
tences in  which  you  tell  facts  about  the  cities  of  your  State. 

THE  IMPERATIVE  SENTENCE 

To  illustrate  sentences  of  another  sort  we  may  sup- 
pose that  a  boy  has  been  in  mischief  and  is  called  to 
account  by  his  father.  You  can  easily  decide  who  is 
speaking. 

Come  in.  Tell  me  where  you  have  been.  Begin  at  the 
beginning.  Sit  down  in  that  chair.  Do  as  I  tell  you,  and 
make  no  reply.  Now  go  on  with  your  story.  Don't  speak  so 
fast,  but  take  time  to  recall  just  what  happened.  Leave  me 
now.  Go  to  your  own  room  and  stay  there  until  morning. 
Don't  make  me  stay  there  all  the  evening.  Let  me  come  down 
to  supper.  Let  me  see  the  procession  for  five  minutes.  Don't 
tease  me  now.  Wait  until  you  have  shown  that  you  deserve 
favors. 


THE    EXCLAMATORY    SENTENCE  5 

Of  these  sentences,  some  express  commands,  as, 
"Come  in."  Some  of  them  make  requests,  as,  "Let 
me  come  down  to  supper."  Such  sentences  are  called 
Imperative. 

Find  all  that  make  requests. 

An  Imperative  Sentence  is  used  to  express  a  command,  a 
request,  or  an  entreaty. 

Exercise  5 

Write  ten  imperative  sentences,  each  expressing  a  command  or 
a  request. 

THE  EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCE 

We  may  feel  surprise  or  strong  emotion  that  may 
appear  in  the  sentence;  as,  "How  strange  that  is!" 
"How  tired  I  am!"  "What  a  fine  fellow  he  was!" 
"How  generous  he  always  was!"  "What!  must  I  show 
respect  to  a  man  like  that?  Never!"  "Get  out  of  my 
way!"  "Go  at  once!" 

These  may  be  called  exclamatory  sentences,  but  they 
are  really  declarative,  interrogative,  or  imperative 
sentences,  and  are  only  for  convenience  put  into  a 
class  by  themselves. 

An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  used  to  express  surprise  or 
strong  feeling. 

Any  sentence,  whether  declarative,  interrogative,  or 
imperative,  that  expresses  deep  feeling,  may  be  called 
exclamatory.  The  exclamatory  sentence  is  followed  by 
an  Exclamation  Point  ( !). 


6  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    II 

THE  SUBJECT   OF   THE   SENTENCE 

If  we  study  any  sentence  closely  we  find  that  it  is 
made  up  of  two  distinct  parts.  For  example,  in  the 
sentence,  "Clouds  gather,"  the  two  parts  are  the  word 
Clouds,  about  which  an  assertion  is  made,  and  the 
word  gather,  which  makes  the  assertion  about  Clouds. 

In  the  sentence,  "Water  flows,"  by  asking  "What 
flows  1"  we  see  that  the  assertion  is  made  about  water. 
In  the  sentences,  "Robert  is  flying  his  kite.  His  uncle 
made  it  for  him.  The  kite  goes  soaring  into  the  air," 
the  answer  to  the  questions,  "Who  is  flying  his  kite! 
Who  made  it  for  him!  What  goes  soaring  into  the  air!" 
is  in  each  case  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence. 


part   of  a  sentence  about  which  an  assertion  is 
made  is  the  Subject. 

Exercise  6 

After  reading  the  following  sentences  ask  questions  beginning 
with  who  or  what.  In  each  case  the  answer  will  be  the  subject  of 
the  sentence.  Find  the  subject  of  each  sentence  :— 

1.  Near  my  home  is  a  narrow  road  through  the  woods. 

%.  From  one  side  of  the  road  the  slope  descends  steeply  to 
a  brook. 

3.  On  the  other  side  a  cliff  rises  to  a  height  of  two  hundred 
feet. 

4.  Ferns  and  mosses  cover  the  rocks. 

5.  The  brook  dashes  over  a  black  bed  into  a  deep  pool. 


THE    INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCE  7 

6.  Here  the  foam  whirls  round  and  round  in  great  white 
circles. 

7.  Gray  squirrels  abound  in  the  high  woods. 

8.  Partridges  often  whirr  past  you  from  their  nests. 

9.  Many  rare  wild-flowers  grow  in  these  woods. 

THE  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCE 

In  questions  the  words  do  not  usually  stand  in  the 
same  order  as  they  do  in  statements.  But  you  can 
easily  find  the  subject  and  the  assertion  made  about 
it  by  changing  the  sentence  to  the  declarative  form. 
For  example,  the  interrogative  sentence,  "Are  the 
birds  singing?"  when  changed  to  the  declarative  form, 
becomes  "  The  birds  are  singing."  By  a  similar  change, 
"Are  mosquitoes  common  here?"  becomes  "Mosquitoes 
are  common  here."  In  some  cases  questions  are  actu- 
ally asked  in  the  declarative  form,  the  question  being 
indicated  by  the  inflection  of  the  voice. 

Exercise  7 

After  studying  the  following  interrogative  sentences,  change 
each  to  the  declarative  form  and  then  find  the  subject:— 

1.  Are  mornings  in  October  often  frosty  in  your  neighbor- 
hood? 

2.  Have  the  leaves  on  the  trees  changed  color? 

3.  Have  the  insects  all  gone  into  winter  quarters? 

4.  Will  some  of  them  be  killed  by  the  first  frost? 

5.  Have  the  toads  and  turtles  buried  themselves  in  the  earth? 

6.  Has  the  black  bear  selected  his  sleeping-place  for  the 
winter? 


8  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

7.  Will  he  go  into  it  before  the  winter  comes  ? 

8.  Are  the  fish  trying  to  go  down  stream  to  the  sea? 

To  find  the  subject  of  an  interrogative  sentence,  first  change 
the  sentence  to  the  declarative  form. 

CHAPTER    III 

THE   PREDICATE   OF   THE  SENTENCE 

In  every  declarative  sentence,  as  we  have  seen,  we 
make  an  assertion  about  some  person,  place,  or  tiling. 

For  example,  "A  grove  stands  near  the  old  farm- 
house." Here  "A  grove"  is  the  subject,  and  "stands 
near  the  old  farmhouse"  is  the  assertion  made  about 
the  subject.  In  the  sentence,  "A  gray  squirrel  was 
chattering  in  the  branches  of  an  oak,"  "A  gray  squir- 
rel" is  the  subject,  and  "was  chattering  in  the  branches 
of  an  oak"  is  the  assertion  made  about  the  subject. 
In  the  sentence,  "The  gay  little  fellow  lived  in  the 
hollow  trunk  of  a  chestnut-tree,"  what  is  the  subject! 
What  assertion  is  made  about  the  subject!  In  the 
sentence,  "He  has  built  himself  a  summer-house  of 
small  leafy  twigs,"  what  is  the  assertion!  In  the  sen- 
tence, "We  saw  him  hiding  some  nuts,"  what  is  the 
assertion!  In  the  sentence,  "He  was  storing  away 
food  for  the  coming  winter,"  what  is  the  assertion! 

That  part  of  the  sentence  which  makes  an  assertion  is 
the  Predicate. 

Exercise  8 

After  reading  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  subjects  and 
the  predicates:— 


THE    PREDICATE    OF    THE    SENTENCE        9 

1.  The  gray  squirrel  is  nimble  and  daring. 

£.  His  passage  through  the  trees  is  almost  a  flight. 

3.  He  leaps  recklessly  from  branch  to  branch. 

4.  His  career  of  frolic  and  festivity  begins  in  the  autumn. 

5.  His  presence  adds  much  to  the  pleasure  of  a  stroller  in 
the  quiet  October  woods. 

6.  We  have  often  studied  his  habits  there. 

7.  One  sunny  afternoon  not  long  ago  we  stepped  lightly 
into  the  forest  behind  our  house. 

8.  We  sat  down  upon  a  big  bowlder  near  a  gray  squirrel's 
nest. 

9.  In  a  few  minutes  we  heard  the  rustling  of  a  branch. 

10.  Then  we  saw  other  branches  swaying  under  the  weight 
of  the  leaping  squirrel. 

11.  The   frisky   little   creature   soon   darted   down  to  the 
ground  near  us. 

1£.  He  even  took  a  nut  out  of  my  hand. 

By  asking  questions  with  who  you  can  easily  find 
the  subjects  of  the  seventh,  ninth,  and  tenth  sentences, 
which  are  the  most  difficult.  The  remainder  of  the 
sentence  in  each  case  is  the  predicate. 

Write  flye  declarative  sentences  about  Vacation,  and  in  each 
find  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  Write  flye  interrogative  sen- 
tences. Change  each  to  the  declarative  form,  and  name  the  subject 
and  the  predicate. 

Exercise  9 

Make  an  assertion  about  each  of  the  following  subjects  and  thus 
complete  the  sentences : — 

1.  The  gray  cat 

£.  A  narrow  hole • 


10  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

3.  Two  old  rats  - 

4.  The  cat  patiently 

5.  One  day  the  rats 

6.  The  noise  - 

7.  At  last  a  trap  - 

8.  A  piece  of  toasted  cheese 

9.  All  these  attractions 

10.  But  some  meat 

11.  Early  the  next  morning  a  large  brown  rat 

12.  From  that  time  the  house 

Exercise  10 

Form   sentences   by    supplying    subjects    for    the    following 
predicates  :— 

1.  was  stopped  by  the  conductor. 

2.  sat  preparing  his  lesson  for  the  next  day. 

3.  From  the  hill  watched  every  movement  of  the 

army. 

4.  dashed  high  up  on  the  rocks. 

5.  flooded  the  valley  with  light. 

6.  strewed  the  street  with  leaves  and  branches. 

7.  Through  the  window crawled  out  into  the  street. 

8.  ran  rapidly  down  the  road. 

9.  From  a  high  rock flew  to  a  dead  pine. 

10.  Across  the  bridge marched  in  single  file. 

11.  In  the  early  morning  sailed  for  Liverpool. 

12.  stood  on  the  bank  of  the  river. 

13.  had  a  fishing-rod  and  a  basket. 

14.  For  a  while caught  nothing. 


THE    SUBJECT    AND    THE    PREDICATE      11 

15.  -  brought  up  a  big  fish. 

16.  -  -  did  not  succeed  in  drawing  it  to  shore. 

17.  -  -  snapped  his  rod  in  two  pieces. 

18.  -          —  saw  the  broken  rod  and  the  fish  go  down  stream. 

CHAPTER    IV 

THE  SUBJECT   AND   THE   PREDICATE 
Exercise  11 

In  the  following  groups  of  words  select  the  complete  sentences, 
and  in  every  case  name  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  Unless  a 
group  of  words  contains  both  a  subject  and  a  predicate l  you  may 
know  that  it  is  not  a  complete  sentence: — 

1.  Found  a  very  tall  oak-tree. 

2.  He  noticed  a  flag  waving  in  the  air. 

3.  Went  farther  and  farther  from  home. 

4.  A  gust  of  wind  blew  off  his  hat. 

5.  Caught  it  after  a  chase. 

6.  A  brook  in  the  meadow. 

7.  He  saw  a  bright  flower. 

8.  Then  a  red  apple  drew  his  attention. 

9.  On  the  garden  wall. 

10.  Spied  his  sister  in  the  distance. 

11.  Walked  together  into  the  fields. 

12.  Home  with  their  father  in  a  carriage. 

Make  complete  sentences  out  of  such  groups  of  words  as  are  not 
already  sentences. 

1  Even  such  expressions  as  "You  here?"  "la  cheat?"  clearly  imply 
the  full  form  with  the  predicate:  "Are  you  here?"  "Am  I  a  cheat?"  In 
conversation  we  often  omit  the  subject  or  the  predicate : 
"  I  (did  it)."  "  What  did  you  do  then  ?  "  "  (I)  went  home." 


12  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

When  a  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predi- 
cate it  is  called  a  Simple  Sentence. 

Exercise  12 
Use  the  following  words  as  subjects  in  sentences : — 

Steamship,  engine,  engineer,  factory,  storm,  waterfall, 
flag,  army,  soldier,  tent,  chieftain,  attack,  explorer,  North 
Pole,  doctor,  judge,  governor,  gentleman,  Pilgrims,  settlers, 
stranger,  minister,  scholar,  people,  friends,  cattle,  horses,  fair, 
foot-ball,  boat-race. 

Exercise  13 

Use  the  following  words  as  predicates  in  sentences :- 
Have,  grow,  promise,  give,  go,  ride,  speak,  see,  notice,  help, 
ask,  carry,  pass,  drive,  leave,  sit,  reply,  refuse,  come,  learn, 
prepare,  bring,  finish,  find,  make,  knock,  break,  sweep,  fill. 

NOTE. — In  most  of  the  exercises  we  have  used  the  simple  forms  of 
the  verb.  But  the  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  use  as  great  a  variety 

of  verb-forms  as  -possible, 
j          j  i 

CHAPTER    V 

THE   NOUN 

In  all  our  speaking  and  writing  we  are  constantly 
using  the  names  of  persons,  places,  or  things.  In  fact, 
we  give  a  name  to  every  object  that  we  know. 

Exercise  14 
What  names  are  used  in  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  Last  year  we  bought  an  old  abandoned  farm  in  New 
Hampshire. 

2.  The  place  was  overgrown  with  weeds. 


COMMON    AND    PROPER    NOUNS  13 

3.  In  one  field  we  cut  several  large  loads  of  thistles. 

4.  We  found  that  the  thistles  had  not  stopped  for  the  fences. 

5.  Burdocks  and  mullein  stalks  and  golden-rods  were  every- 
where. 

6.  At  present  all  the  farm-buildings  are  in  bad  repair. 

7.  The  house  is  a  quaint,  rambling  old  place. 

8.  On  three  sides  of  the  house  are  verandas. 

9.  From  every  window  the  views  are  enchanting. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  each  of  the  sentences 
above.  Draw  a  straight  line  under  every  name  used  as  a  subject. 
Write  in  columns  all  the  names  in  the  sentences. 

Exercise  15 

.  Write  the  names  of  six  kinds  of  animals  ;  of  six  kinds  of  trees ; 
of  six  kinds  of  fruit ;  of  six  kinds  of  vegetables ;  of  six  kinds  of 
groceries;  of  six  countries;  of  six  lakes;  of  six  towns;  of  six 
great  men.  Using  your  lists,  write  six  declarative  and  six  inter- 
rogative sentences. 

All  names  of  persons,  places,  or  things  are  nouns; 
or,  more  briefly, 

A  word  used  as  a  name  is  a  Noun. 

Every  word  in  a  sentence,  whether  spoken  or  writ- 
ten, plays  a  definite  part,  and  is  therefore  called  a 
Part  of  Speech.  There  are  eight  parts  of  speech- 
Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepo- 
sitions, Conjunctions,  and  Interjections.  The  noun  is 
the  first  part  of  speech  that  we  have  to  consider. 

COMMON  AND  PROPER  NOUNS 

When  you  say,  "A  man  came  across  the  street  to 
speak  to  us,"  no  one  can  tell  from  your  language  ex- 


14  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

actly  whom  you  mean,  for  there  are  so  many  men  that 
the  word  man  does  not  point  out  any  particular  one. 
But  if  you  say,  "  Henry  Wadsworth  came  across  the 
street  to  speak  to  us,"  you  plainly  indicate  that  you 
have  in  mind  only  one  individual. 

The  word  man  is  a  name  given  to  any  one  of  a  large 
number  of  individuals  of  the  same  kind  or  class.  It 
is  a  name  common  to  all  men.  We  therefore  call  it  a 
common  name  or  a  Common  Noun. 

But  the  name  Henry  Wadsworth  points  out  some 
particular  person.  A  single  person — perhaps  only  one 
in  the  world — owns  that  name.  It  is  his  property. 
We  therefore  call  it  a  Proper1  Noun. 

In  the  same  way  we  use  the  common  name  dog  to 
refer  to  a  certain  kind  of  animal,  but  Prince,  Rover,  or 
some  other  proper  name  if  we  wish  to  refer  to  some 
particular  dog.  The  word  river  may  be  applied  to 
any  river  in  the  world,  but  Potomac  is  applied  to  that 
particular  river  which  flows  between  Maryland  and 
Virginia. 

A  proper  noun  may  consist  of  more  than  one  word; 
as,  Rocky  Mountains,  Ohio  River,  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Exercise  16 

Write  your  teacher's  name ;  your  own  name ;  the  names  of  six 
persons  living  near  your  home.  Are  these  names  common  to  a 
class  of  persons  or  do  they  belong  to  individuals  2 

Every  proper  name  has  a  general  name  or  class 
name  corresponding  to  it,  for  every  individual  belongs 

1  The  word  proper  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  one's  own. 


COMMON    AND    PROPER    NOUNS  15 

to  some  class  of  persons  or  objects.  For  example,  the 
class  name  of  Napoleon  is  man,  of  Russia  is  country, 
of  Paris  is  city,  and  so  forth.  A  general  name  or 
class  name  is  one  shared  by  several  persons  or  objects, 
and  is  of  course  a  common  noun. 

Exercise  17 

Copy  the  following  proper  names,  and  write  opposite  each  an 
appropriate  class  name: — 

New  York,  California,  Vesuvius,  Danube,  Yosemite,  Erie, 
December,  Cuba,  Texas,  Monday,  Memorial  Day,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  Longfellow,  George  III,  Columbus,  U.  S.  Grant, 
The  Youth's  Companion,  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  common  to  all  objects 
of  the  same  class ;  or,  more  briefly, 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  general  name. 

A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person, 
place,  or  thing;  or,  more  briefly, 

A  Proper  Noun  is  an  individual  name. 

Exercise  18 

Indicate  which  of  the  following  nouns  may  be  used  as  common 
or  class  names,  and  which  as  proper  or  individual  names: — 

Country,  river,  state,  ocean,  city,  air,  water,  fire,  apple, 
plant,  tree,  shrub,  fruit,  bird,  beast,  sea,  capital,  governor, 
Washington,  Sunday,  July,  England,  Albany,  mountains, 
Rocky  Mountains,  road,  meadow,  Thursday,  farmers,  hay, 
cyclone,  buildings,  barns,  fences,  monument,  Ohio,  Texas, 


16  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

engineer,  falls,  Niagara  Falls,  mills,  George  Mills,  bank,  coun- 
ter, land,  Cleveland. 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE    PRONOUN 

In  the  preceding  lesson  you  learned  that  every  per- 
son, place,  or  thing  has  a  name.  But  suppose  that 
every  time  you  wished  to  refer  to  yourself  you  had  to 
use  your  own  name,  George,  Frank,  Ethel,  or  Helen, 
in  place  of  saying  1  or  me.  We  should  feel  the  same 
difficulty  if  we  had  to  repeat  your  name  every  time  we 
now  use  you  or  your.  Note  the  following  sentences  :— 

The  writer  remembers  with  pleasure  one  ruddy-faced  Mon- 
tana farmer.  The  farmer  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  of  the  Harvard  Law  School,  but  here  the  farmer 
was  with  the  farmer's  trousers  tucked  into  the  farmer's 
boot-legs,  helping  to  cultivate  the  farmer's  corn,  or  looking 
after  the  farmer's  herds  upon  the  farmer's  broad  acres.  The 
farmer  was  almost  the  ideal  of  a  genuine,  hearty,  educated 
country  gentleman. 

You  observe  that  in  this  short  paragraph  the  name 
farmer  or  farmer's  occurs  nine  times.  This  repeated 
use  of  the  same  word  is  extremely  unpleasant,  and  if 
there  were  no  way  of  preventing  such  repetitions  our 
language  would  be  very  clumsy.  But  in  this  passage 
we  can  easily  avoid  the  frequent  use  of  the  word 
farmer  by  putting  lie  in  its  place,  or  by  putting  his 
in  the  place  of  farmer's.  With  the  suggested  changes 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS  17 

in  mind,  read  the  paragraph,  and  you  will  find  that  it 
sounds  much  more  natural. 

All  the  words  that  take  the  place  of  nouns  are  called 
Pronouns.1  We  have,  therefore,  the  definition:— 

A  word  used  instead  of  a.  noun  is  a  Pronoun. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 
Exercise  19 

In  the  following  sentences  study  the  words  in  italics.  Tell  what 
noun  each  of  these  words  stands  for: — 

Just  then  Sarah  Maud  came  up  the  back-stairs,  so  radiant 
with  joy  that  Peter  could  have  pinched  her  with  a  clear  con- 
science. Carol  gave  them  both  a  joyful  welcome.  "  But 
where  is  Baby  Larry?  "  she  cried.  "  Didn't  he  come?  " 

"  Larry !  Larry !  "  they  all  cried.  Susan  knew  that  he 
had  come,  for  she  remembered  scolding  him  for  catching  his 
toe  in  the  door-mat  and  tripping  over  it  as  they  came  in. 

"  Are  you  sure  Larry  was  with  you?  "  asked  Uncle  Jack. 

"  Yes,  /  am,"  said  Susan. 

"  Oh,  well,  cheer  up !  "  cried  Uncle  Jack.  "  7  think  he  is 
not  lost — only  mislaid.  /  will  go  and  find  him  before  you  can 
say  '  Jack  Robinson.'  " 

We  note  here  that  certain  little  words,  such  as  I,  me, 
you,  he,  his,  him,  she,  her,  it,  they,  and  them,  are  used 
in  the  place  of  nouns,  and  are  therefore  pronouns. 

What  question   does    Uncle   Jack   first   address   to 

1  The  word  pro-noun  means  for  a  noun. 


18  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Susan?  In  her  answer  what  pronoun  does  she  use 
instead  of  her  own  name?  The  pronoun  I  is  used  in 
place  of  the  name  of  the  person  speaking,  and  is  said 
to  be  in  the  first  person. 

In  asking  Susan  a  question,  what  pronoun  does 
Uncle  Jack  use  instead  of  Susan's  name?  The  pro- 
noun you,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  name  of  the 
person  spoken  to,  is  in  the  second  person. 

When  Uncle  Jack  says  to  Susan,  "I  will  go  and  find 
him  before  you  can  say  '  Jack  Kobinson,' "  what  pro- 
noun does  he  use  in  place  of  Larry's  name?  He  and 
him  are  in  the  third  person  because  they  take  the  place 
of  the  name  of  the  person  spoken  of. 

A  pronoun  is  in  the  first  person  when  it  stands  for 
the  person  or  persons  speaking. 

A  pronoun  is  in  the  second  person  when  it  stands  for 
the  person  or  persons  spoken  to. 

A  pronoun  is  in  the  third  person  when  it  stands  for 
one  or  more  persons  or  things  spoken  of. 

A  pronoun  the  form  of  which  shows  whether  the  first 
person,  the  second  person,  or  the  third  person  is  meant  is 
a  Personal  Pronoun. 

Exercise  20 

Select  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  paragraph.  Giye 
the  person  of  each  pronoun,  and  point  out  the  noun  for  which  it 
stands : — 

I  am  sure  you  would  like  my  dog.  He  came  to  me  early 
one  morning  five  years  ago.  I  found  him  sitting  patiently 
before  the  front  door,  waiting  for  his  breakfast.  He  did  not 


THE    ADJECTIVE  19 

bark  nor  whine,  but  he  sat  up  quietly  and  held  out  his  fore- 
paws  as  if  he  knew  just  what  to  do.  We  watched  him  for  a 
time  before  we  opened  the  door.  On  seeing  us  he  held  up 
one  paw  for  us  to  shake  and  strolled  out  to  the  kitchen. 
The  cook  scowled  a  little  when  she  saw  him  coming,  but  she 
adopted  him  at  once,  and  now  always  takes  him  with  her 
when  she  goes  to  market. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   ADJECTIVE 

If  you  say,  "I  saw  a  horse  trotting  along  the  hill- 
side," you  tell  us  nothing  about  the  kind  of  horse  you 
saw.  But  if  you  add  that  it  was  a  large,  black  horse, 
you  help  us  to  form  a  more  definite  idea.  The  words 
large  and  black  thus  make  clearer  the  meaning  of  the 
noun  horse  by  describing  what  kind  of  horse  you  saw. 
In  the  same  way  the  word  stream,  if  taken  alone,  con- 
veys no  clear  picture  to  the  mind,  but  the  words  wind- 
ing stream,  rapid  stream,  deep,  narrow  stream  do. 
The  words,  winding,  rapid,  deep,  narrow,  describe  the 
noun  stream  in  such  a  way  as  to  aid  us  in  forming  a 
distinct  mental  picture.  Thus  we  see  that  the  word 
stream  merely  names  an  object,  and  that  the  words, 
winding,  rapid,  deep,  narrow,  add  new  meaning  by 
describing  the  object.  Such  words  as  these  are  used 
with  nouns  and  pronouns  to  modify  their  meaning. 

A  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun is  an  Adjective, 


20  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  adjective  is  called  a  modifier  because  it  modi- 
fies, that  is,  changes  somewhat,  the  meaning  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun. 

THE  ARTICLE 

Two  peculiar  little  words,  a  or  an  (a  being  a  short- 
ened form  of  an)  and  the  are  often  used  in  spoken  and 
written  language.  Although  called  articles,  they  are 
really  adjectives,  because  they  modify  the  meaning  of 
nouns.  The  is  called  the  Definite  Article,  because  it 
points  out  some  definite  or  particular  object.  A  or  an 
is  called  the  Indefinite  Article  because  it  does  not  refer 
to  any  definite  or  particular  object. 

Exercise  21 

Select  from  the  following  sentences  all  the  adjectives,  and  tell 
what  nouns  they  modify:— 

1 .  The  modest  little  cottage  overlooked  the  white  sea-beach. 
£.  In  the  low  doorway  stood  a  young  girl. 

3.  "  Do  you  think  we  shall  have  a  stormy  night,  father?  " 
said  she  to  the  old  man  by  her  side. 

4.  Before  answering  he  looked  up  at  the  heavy,  inky  clouds. 

5.  He  felt  the  thick  mist  driving  across  the  headland. 

.  6.  "  Yes,  daughter,"  was  the  quiet  answer.  "  See  that  great 
wave  dash  over  the  breakwater.  The  fishermen  will  have  a 
hard  pull  to  get  home." 

Exercise  22 

Use  adjectives  to  modify  the  following  nouns:— 
Shoemaker,  book,  house,  chair,  picture,  village,  mountain, 
room,  curtain,  snow,  mirror,  story,  pin,  hair,  New  York,  song, 


THE    ADJECTIVE    PHRASE  21 

bundle,  shower,  weather,  damage,  mill,  reception,  escape,  jour- 
ney, apples. 

Exercise  23 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  as  adjectives  to  modify  the 
meaning  of  some  noun  :— 

Hard,  great,  kind-hearted,  good,  bright,  polite,  proud,  old, 
little,  big,  wrong,  poor,  rich,  red,  white,  blue,  deep,  wide,  high, 
long. 

Exercise  24 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  as  adjectives  in  a  simple  de- 
clarative sentence,  and  point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of 
each  sentence:— 

Square,  round,  thin,  yellow,  soft,  woolly,  feathery,  cold, 
rude,  flat,  rough,  low,  marshy,  stony,  ragged. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE   ADJECTIVE   PHRASE 

It  is  not  always  desirable,  and  sometimes  not  pos- 
sible, to  describe  an  object  satisfactorily  by  using 
adjectives  only.  We  therefore  employ  groups  of 
words,  as  in  the  following  sentences : — 

1.  Beautiful  violets  are  blooming. 

2.  Those  are  violets  of  rare  beauty. 

3.  The  violets  in  our  garden  are  very  fragrant. 

4.  The  violets  near  the  hedgerow  are  withered. 

5.  The  violets  behind  the  arbor  are  yellow. 


22  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

In  the  first  sentence  the  adjective  beautiful  modi- 
fies violets.  But  in  each  of  the  remaining  sentences 
a  group  of  words,  used  like  an  adjective,  modifies  violets. 
For  example,  in  the  second  sentence  violets  of  rare 
beauty  are  pointed  out ;  in  the  third,  the  violets  in  our 
garden;  in  the  fourth,  the  violets  near  the  hedgerow; 
and  in  the  last,  the  violets  behind  the  arbor. 

Each  of  these  groups  of  words,  used  as  an  adjective 
to  describe  or  limit  the  meaning  of  the  noun  violets, 
is  called  a  Phrase.  Hence— 

A  phrase  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun is  an  Adjective  Phrase. 

Exercise  25 

What  phrases  are  used  below  to  modify  the  meaning  of  orange  ? 
of  dandelion  ? 

1.  The  orange  in  your  hand. 

2.  The  orange  of  golden  hue. 

3.  The  orange  on  the  tree. 

4.  The  orange  of  delicious  flavor. 

5.  The  orange  from  Florida. 

6.  The  orange  in  the  grocer's  wagon. 

7.  The  dandelion  along  the  roadside. 

8.  The  dandelion  in  the  meadow. 

9.  The  dandelion  near  the  river. 

10.  The  dandelion  on  the  lawn. 

11.  The  dandelion  under  the  tree. 

12.  The  dandelion  beside  the  log. 

Find  a  suitable  phrase  to  modify  the  meaning  of  each  of  the 
following  nouns: — 


THE    POSSESSIVE    FORM    OF    THE    NOUN    23 

Lumber,  house,  town,  street,  city,  oak,  Indian,  banana, 
steamer. 

NOTE. — If  the  teacher  so  desires,  the  study  of  the  preposition  and  the 
prepositional  phrase  (p.  61)  may  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  this 
chapter. 

Exercise  86 

Use  in  a  sentence  each  of  the  following  phrases  to  modify  the 
meaning:  of  some  noun:— 

On  the  tree ;  under  the  table ;  in  the  cellar ;  over  the  door ; 
at  the  station ;  at  the  window ;  beside  the  lake ;  of  easy  tem- 
per ;  with  green  spectacles ;  with  bright,  twinkling  eyes ;  from 
China;  from  the  best  milliner  in  Paris;  in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances. 

Observe  that  a  phrase  does  not  contain  a  subject 
and  a  predicate. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   POSSESSIVE   FORM   OF  THE   NOUN 

We  have  already  seen  that  adjectives  are  used  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  nouns.  We  have  now  to  learn 
that  certain  forms  of  nouns  and  pronouns  are  some- 
times used  as  noun  modifiers.  We  find  illustrations 
in  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  The  carpenter's  tools  are  again  mislaid. 

2.  It  was  James's  fault. 

3.  That  man's  temper  is  always  disturbing  our  workmen. 

4.  Their  foreman  presented  a  complaint  at  the  office. 


24  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Whose  tools  are  mentioned  in  the  first  sentence? 
Carpenter's  modifies  the  meaning  of  tools.  Whose 
fault  is  pointed  out  in  the  second  sentence?  What 
word,  then,  modifies  the  meaning  of  fault?  Of  temper? 
Of  workmen?  Of  foreman? 

Our  in  the  third  sentence  and  their  in  the  fourth  are 
possessive  forms  of  personal  pronouns. 

You  will  notice  that  the  Apostrophe  (')  and  the  letter 
s  are  added  to  the  word  carpenter  to  indicate  whose 
tools  are  meant.  You  will  notice,  also,  that  each  of 
the  other  nouns  indicating  possession  is  treated  in  the 
same  way. 

If  you  are  not  careful  you  may  confuse  some  ex- 
pressions, such  as  the  following: — 

1.  The  boy's  boat. 

2.  The  boys'  boat. 

3.  The  soldier's  camp-fire. 

4.  The  soldiers'  camp-fire. 

When  we  write,  "The  boy's  boat,"  we  indicate  that 
only  one  boy  owns  the  boat ;  but  when  we  write,  "  The 
boys'  boat,"  we  signify  that  more  than  one  boy  pos- 
sesses the  boat.  In  the  expressions,  "The  robin's 
song,"  "The  robins'  song,"  is  one  robin  meant  or  more 
than  one? 

When  the  noun  denoting  possession  names  but  one 
object  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  (Js)  are  added 
to  indicate  possession.  The  word  thus  formed  is  said 
to  have  the  Possessive  Form.  When  the  word  denoting 


THE    POSSESSIVE    FORM    OF    THE    NOUN     25 

possession  names  more  than  one  object  and  ends  in  s,  the 
apostrophe  alone  is  added  to  form  the  possessive;  but 
when  such  a  word  does  not  end  in  s,  both  the  apos- 
trophe and  s  are  needed  to  form  the  possessive. 

Exercise  27 
Write  the  possessive  form  of  the  following  words: — 

Bird,  birds,  lion,  lions,  man,  men,  woman,  women,  fox,  foxes, 
mouse,  mice,  goose,  geese,  pony,  ponies,  cow,  cows,  tiger,  tigers, 
Indian,  Spaniard,  merchant,  farmer,  lambs,  Frenchman,  citi- 
zens, captain,  troop,  senators,  officers,  clerk,  serpent,  animal, 
painter,  Frank,  duke,  friends,  bride,  father,  boy,  cousin, 
cashier,  author,  uncle,  aunt. 

Exercise  £8 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  nouns  that  denote  posses- 
sion, and  show  what  words  they  modify.  In  each  case  tell  whether 
the  possessive  form  indicates  one  object  or  more  than  one: — 

1.  Hawthorne's  "  Scarlet  Letter  "  brought  him  great  fame. 
£.  Have  you  ever  read  about  Mr.  Winkle's  experience  on 
skates  ? 

3.  Do  you  think  he  profited  much  by  Sam  Weller's  assist- 
ance? 

4.  "  Tom  Brown's  School  Days.  "  describes  the  life  of  a  boy 
at  Rugby. 

5.  "  Sindbad  the  Sailor  "  is  one  of  many  strange  stories  in 
"  The  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments." 

6.  Irving's  best  known  tales  are  "  Rip  Van  Winkle  "  and 
"  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." 


26  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

7.  The  President's  annual  message  is  received  by  Congress 
in  December. 

8.  The  boys'  playground  was  a  spacious  one. 

NOTE. — This  and  many  other  exercises  may  well  be  used  as  dictation 
lessons. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE    APPOSITIVE 

As  already  explained,  the  noun  and  the  pronoun 
may  be  modified  by  an  adjective,  an  adjective  phrase, 
and  the  possessive  form  of  the  noun  or  pronoun. 
Sometimes  the  noun  and  the  pronoun  have  still  an- 
other modifier,  which  we  will  now  study.  Examples 
of  its  use  occur  in  the  following  sentences : — 

1.  Kane,   the  Arctic  explorer,   had   many   wonderful   ad- 
ventures. 

2.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  the  Wizard  of  the  North,"  wrote 
"  Kenilworth." 

3.  Alexander  Hamilton,  a  great  statesman,  was  killed  by 
Aaron  Burr. 

4.  We  boys  enjoyed  the  lecture  on  Hamilton. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  word  explorer  is  added  to 
the  noun  Kane  to  explain  who  he  was.  What  word 
in  the  second  sentence  explains  who  Sir  Walter  Scott 
was?  What  word  in  the  third  sentence  explains  who 
Alexander  Hamilton  was?  What  word  in  the  fourth 
sentence  explains  the  meaning  of  the  pronoun  we? 


THE    APPOSITIVE  27 

Words  used  in  this  way  to  describe  or  explain  the  mean- 
ing of  nouns  or  pronouns  are  called  Appositives,1  and  are 
said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  nouns  or  the  pronouns 
which  they  describe  or  explain. 

Exercise  W 

In  the  following  sentences  why  are  the  nouns  in  italics  apposi- 
tives  ?  With  what  noun  or  pronoun  is  each  of  them  in  apposition, 
and  why? 

1.  Brom  Bones,  the  hero  of  the  country  round,  was  a  pow- 
erful rival. 

2.  Nataline,  the  light-keeper's  daughter,  fought  the  dark- 
ness like  a  soldier. 

3.  Robert,  the  keeper  of  the  lighthouse,  made  ready  the 
clockwork  for  the  night. 

4.  That  old  sleeper,  the  woodchuck,  awakes  in  March  and 
stays  out  in  all  sorts  of  weather. 

5.  Thomas  Newcome  artfully  invited  Barnes,  his  nephew, 
to  dinner. 

6.  Last   summer   we  visited   Owl's   Head,   a   little   seaside 
resort,  not  far  from  Gloucester. 

7.  Jo,  the  guide,  was  a  good  canoeman. 

8.  The  cook's  wages,  forty  dollars  a  month,  were  ample 
for  his  needs. 

9.  Thousands  of  birds,  sea-fowl,  nested  there. 

10.  That  difficult  march  led  us  through  a  sublime  waste,  a 
wilderness  of  mountains  and  pine-forests. 

A  group  of  words  containing  an  appositive  and  its  modi- 
fier or  modifiers  is  called  an  Appositive  Phrase.  Appositive 
phrases  are  usually  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  commas,  but  if  the  connection  is  very  close  the  commas 
are  sometimes  omitted. 

1  From  a  Latin  word  meaning  to  put  near. 


28  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  30 

Select  the  appositive  phrases  from  the  sentences  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercise. 

Exercise  31 

In  each  of  the  following-  groups  of  words  which  word  is  the 
appositive,  and  why  ?  Put  each  of  these  groups  of  words  into  a 
written  sentence.  Be  careful  to  separate  each  appositive  phrase 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  :— 

The  captain,  a  weather-beaten  veteran;  the  porter,  a  jolly 
fellow ;  a  refined-looking  man,  a  teacher ;  a  bent  figure,  a  mere 
shadow ;  the  carriage,  a  well-worn  vehicle ;  a  raw-boned  horse, 
a  vicious-looking  beast;  our  landlady,  a  severe-faced  matron 
of  fifty. 

CHAPTER    XI 

THE  SIMPLE   SUBJECT  AND  THE   COMPLETE  SUBJECT 

We  have  learned  that  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is 
that  about  which  an  assertion  is  made.  The  complete 
subject  may  consist  of  a  single  word,  but  this  is  not 
always  the  case.  Note  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  Ponies  were  performing  in  the  circus-ring. 

2.  Shetland  ponies  were  performing  in  the  circus-ring. 

3.  Black  Shetland  ponies  were  performing  in  the  circus- 
ring. 

4.  Three   black   ponies    from   the    Shetland   Islands   were 
performing  in  the  circus-ring. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  subject  is  the  single  word 
ponies;  in  the  second  sentence  it  consists  of  the  words 


THE    COMPLETE    SUBJECT  29 

Shetland  ponies;  in  the  third  sentence,  of  the  words 
Black  Shetland  ponies;  and  in  the  fourth,  of  the  words 
Three  black  ponies  from  the  Shetland  Islands. 

By  looking  again  at  the  second  sentence  we  find  that 
the  subject,  "  Shetland  ponies,"  is  made  up  of  the  noun 
ponies  and  its  adjective  modifier  Shetland.  We  call 
ponies  the  Simple  Subject  and  Shetland  ponies  the  Com- 
plete Subject.  In  the  third  sentence  ponies  is  the  simple 
subject,  while  ponies  and  its  modifiers,  black  and  Shet- 
land, together  form  the  complete  subject.  In  the  fourth 
sentence  what  is  the  noun  that  is  used  as  the  simple 
subject?  What  are  its  adjective  modifiers?  Add  them 
to  the  simple  subject,  and  you  form  the  complete 
subject. 

The  Simple  Subject  is  a  noun  or  a.  pronoun. 
The  Complete  Subject  consists  of  the  simple  subject  and 
its  modifiers. 

Exercise  32 

In  each  of  the  following-  sentences  what  is  the  simple  subject? 
What  is  the  complete  subject? 

Yellowstone  Park  in  Wyoming  is  a  great  national  play- 
ground thousands  of  square  miles  in  area.  It  is  full  of  hot 
springs  and  geysers  and  other  wonderful  sights.  People  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  flock  here  to  make  the  tour  of  the  Park. 
No  railroads  are  allowed  in  the  Park,  but  every  sight-seer  has 
to  drive  or  walk  or  ride  on  horseback.  Great  coaches  holding  a 
dozen  people  and  drawn  by  four  horses  take  you  in  less  than 
a  week  to  the  most  important  points.  The  smaller  carriages 
with  two  horses  and  with  seats  for  only  four  or  five  people  are 


30  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

more  comfortable.  Very  little  rain  falls  in  summer,  and  the 
travelled  roads  are  thick  with  dust  by  the  end  of  August.  But 
the  sight  of  a  geyser  spouting  a  great  jet  of  water  a  hundred 
feet  into  the  air  makes  one  forget  all  discomfort. 

Exercise  S3 

Copy  the  sentences  of  Exercise  1,  p.  2,  putting  a  single 
straight  line  under  the  simple  subject  and  a  waTed  line  with  the 
letter  s.  under  the  modifier  of  the  simple  subject,  whether  this 
modifier  is  a  word  or  a  phrase.  For  example, — 

The  country  to^thejeast  was  rolling  and  wooded. 

"^^sT^ 

CHAPTER    XII 

A   REVIEW 

Define  a  declarative  sentence.  Write  six  declarative 
sentences,  using  in  each  an  adjective  to  modify  the 
subject.  Define  an  interrogative  sentence.  Write  six 
interrogative  sentences  and  change  them  to  the  de- 
clarative form.  Define  an  imperative  sentence;  an 
exclamatory  sentence.  Write  five  imperative  sentences. 

What  is  a  noun!  A  common  noun?  A  proper  noun! 
Make  two  lists,  one  containing  ten  common  nouns  and 
the  other  ten  proper  nouns. 

Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  in  the 
possessive  form  to  modify  a  noun  used  as  a  simple 
subject.  In  each  of  these  sentences  mark  the  subject 
and  its  modifier,  as  indicated  in  Exercise  33.  Remem- 
ber that  the  possessive  form  of  the  noun  is  used  like 
an  adjective. 

What  is  a  pronoun!    What  is  the  difference  between 


THE    VERB  31 

a  noun  and  a  pronoun!  What  is  the  advantage  in 
having  pronouns?  Name  six  personal  pronouns  and 
use  each  of  them  in  a  declarative  sentence. 

What  is  an  adjective?  Write  five  declarative  sen- 
tences, each  containing  an  adjective.  What  is  an 
adjective  phrase?  Write  five  declarative  sentences, 
each  containing  an  adjective  phrase. 

Write  five  sentences,  in  each  of  which  you  use  a 
noun  in  apposition.  What  is  the  difference  between 
the  simple  subject  and  the  complex  subject? 

Exercise  34,  for  Review 
Point  out  the  nouns  and  the  adjectives  in  Exercise  29  (p.  27). 

CHAPTER    XIII 

THE   VERB 

We  have  discussed  the  subject  and  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence.  We  are  now  ready  to  study  the  word 
or  phrase  used  in  the  predicate  to  make  the  assertion. 

1.  The  fisherman  went  to  the  river. 

2.  He  rowed  his  boat  down  the  stream. 

3.  He  threw  his  hook  into  the  water. 

4.  In  a  few  minutes  he  caught  a  large  bass. 

In  the  first  sentence  we  make  an  assertion  about  the 
fisherman.  We  assert  that  he  went  somewhere.  In 
the  second,  we  assert  that  he  rowed  something;  in  the 
third,  that  he  threw  something ;  and  in  the  fourth,  that 
he  caught  something. 


32  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

What  word  is  used  to  make  an  assertion  in  the  first 
of  the  sentences  above!  In  the  second!  In  the  third? 
In  the  fourth? 

1.  The  robin  comes  in  early  spring. 

2.  He  builds  his  nest  near  our  house. 

3.  He  sings  a  cheerful  song. 

What  word  in  the  first  sentence  asserts  something 
about  the  robin?  In  the  second!  In  the  third? 

Exercise  35 

Find  the  asserting  word  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  and 
draw  two  horizontal  lines  under  it:— 

At  last  came  a  very  wet  summer.  The  streams  rose  high. 
The  hay-stacks  floated  down  the  valley.  The  hail  cut  all  the 
grape-vines  to  pieces.  A  black  blight  killed  most  of  the  corn. 
Yet  Fritz  saw  little  of  the  trouble.  Most  of  the  wet  days  he 
spent  beside  the  roaring  fire.  There  he  worked  quietly  turning 
the  great  roasts.  One  day,  however,  he  crept  out  over  the  hill. 
Then  he  saw  for  the  first  time  the  awful  destruction. 

Exercise  36 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  in  an  oral  sentence  to  make  an 
assertion  about  an  appropriate  subject:— 

Take,  say,  run,  hear,  dance,  spend,  lead,  do,  carry,  march, 
bring,  work,  watch,  blow,  buy,  see,  throw,  walk,  sell,  shut, 
melt,  shake,  wind,  promise,  spin,  catch,  creep,  sweep,  leave, 
wave,  pull,  ring. 

A  word  used  to  make  an  assertion  is  a  Verb. 


THE    VERB-PHRASE  33 

Exercise  37 

Use  an  appropriate  verb  to  make  an  assertion  about  each  of  the 
following  words  used  as  subjects : — 

Ant,  bees,  owls,  fox,  sheep,  fish,  wheat,  corn,  coal,  ice,  sun- 
shine, clouds,  sky,  moon,  garden,  blossoms,  gold,  pepper, 
pencil,  rocket,  rocks,  moss. 

CHAPTER    XIV 

THE   VERB-PHRASE 

A  verb  does  not  always  consist  of  a  single  word. 
Note  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  The  dog  chased  the  rabbit. 

2.  The  dog  was  chasing  the  rabbit. 

3.  The  dog  has  chased  the  rabbit. 

4.  The  dog  has  been  chasing  the  rabbit. 

5.  The  dog  had  chased  the  rabbit. 

6.  The  dog  had  been  chasing  the  rabbit. 

What  single  word  makes  the  assertion  about  the  dog 
in  the  first  sentence!  What  group  of  words  in  the  sec- 
ond sentence?  What  group  in  the  third!  What  in 
the  fourth!  In  the  fifth!  In  the  sixth! 

A  group  of  words  used  as  a  verb  is  a  Verb-Phrase. 

We  call  the  verb-phrase  a  verb  just  as  if  it  were  a 
single  word. 

Exercise  38 

Select  A,he  verbs  and  the  verb-phrases  in  the  following  sentences 
and  also  the  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  each : — 


34  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

A  heavy  sea  had  come  up  in  the  night.  The  wind  fresh- 
ened and  finally  blew  a  gale.  The  outlook  was  not  encour- 
aging. Every  one  knew  that  the  islands  with  their  dangerous 
rocks  were  somewhere  near,  but  no  one  could  decide  exactly 
where  the  ship  had  drifted.  The  steerage  passengers  had 
mostly  gone  below,  for  the  decks  were  constantly  flooded. 
But  some  preferred  to  be  where  they  could  save  themselves 
in  case  of  accident.  Happily,  after  the  storm  had  lasted 
fourteen  hours,  the  wind  began  to  go  down.  The  waves  still 
rolled  high,  but  they  did  not  wash  everything  off  the  decks. 
After  dinner  the  passengers  crept  outside.  They  found  that 
all  the  boats  but  one  had  gone  overboard,  the  rails  were  bent 
and  broken,  and  the  funnels  were  coated  with  salt  to  the  tops. 
But  the  danger  was  past,  and  every  one  could  enjoy  the  sight 
of  the  sunlight  flashing  on  the  foaming  waves. 

Exercise  39 
Use  in  declarative  sentences  the  following  verb-phrases:— 

Has  been  writing;  is  sleeping;  might  have  gone;  may  be 
heard ;  had  gone ;  would  have  seen ;  had  been  hurt ;  could  have 
driven ;  were  shouting ;  had  fallen ;  should  have  written ;  can  be 
seen ;  will  be  known. 

Exercise  1±0 

Use  in  interrogative  sentences  the  verb-phrases  in  the  preceding 
exercise. 

Exercise  J±l,  for  Review 

Draw  two  straight  lines  under  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  and  one  straight  line  under  each  noun  or  pronoun 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb :— 


THE    TRANSITIVE    VERB  35 

Hans  struggled  on.  The  sun  was  sinking,  but  its  descent 
seemed  to  bring  no  coolness.  The  leaden  weight  of  the  dead 
air  pressed  upon  his  brow  and  heart,  but  the  goal  was  near. 
He  saw  the  cataract  of  the  Golden  River  springing  from  the 
hillside,  scarcely  five  hundred  feet  above  him.  He  paused  for  a 
moment  to  breathe,  and  sprang  on  to  complete  his  task. 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE    TRANSITIVE   VERB 

We  have  found  that  a  verb  is  a  word  used  to  make 
an  assertion.  Usually  the  verb  asserts  action,  as,  "The 
boy  drove  the  horse."  Note  also  the  following  sen- 
tences :— 

1.  For  several  minutes  the  hawk  wheeled  in  wide  circles. 

2.  Then  with  a  sudden  swoop  she  caught  a  fish  and  carried 
it  off  in  her  claws. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  verb  wheeled  asserts  action ; 
in  the  second  sentence  the  verbs  caught  and  carried 
also  assert  action.  But  there  is  a  difference  in  the  use 
of  the  verbs  in  these  sentences.  In  the  first  sentence 
the  verb  asserts  action  only,  while  in  the  second  sen- 
tence the  verbs  assert  action  and  also  take  objects  to 
complete  their  meaning:  she  caught  a  fish  and  carried  it 
off  in  her  claws. 

Exercise  4® 

Use  in  sentences  the  following  yerbs,  which  assert  action  and 
take  an  object  to  complete  their  meaning:— 


36  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Wish,  pay,  make,  mend,  finish,  take,  have,  do,  carry,  touch, 
throw,  buy,  ask,  lift,  bring,  lose,  hear,  build,  weave,  lay,  say, 
cut  see,  raise. 

Exercise  43 

In  the  following  sentences  name  the  verbs  that  assert  action 
and  take  an  object.  Point  out  the  nouns  or  pronouns  that  are  the 
subjects  of  the  verbs : — 

1.  When  we  saw  the  shore  Mildred  drew  a  breath  of  relief. 

2.  I  tossed  up  my  cap,  and  she  waved  her  handkerchief. 

3.  The  rain  had  soaked  our  clothing  and  chilled  us  through. 

4.  A  stiff  breeze  drove  our  boat  rapidly  into  the  harbor. 

5.  At  times  our  ears  caught  the  roar  of  the  breakers. 

6.  With  much  difficulty  we  anchored  our  boat. 

7.  A  little  later  we  reached  the  land  in  safety. 

8.  Friends  and  even  strangers  welcomed  us. 

9.  They  laughed  and  cried  to  see  that  we  were  safe. 

A  verb  that  asserts  action  and  requires  an  object  to  com- 
plete its  meaning  is  a  Transitive1  Verb. 

Exercise  44 

In  the  following  sentences  fill  out  the  blanks  with  transitive 
verbs,  and  name  the  objects: — 

1.  In  spring  the  farmer  -          -  his  field. 

2.  He various  kinds  of  seed. 

3.  In  July  he  -          -  his  hay  and  -          -  it  to  the  barn. 

4.  The  gardener  -          -  the  gate  for  our  party. 

1  From  a  Latin  word  meaning  to  pass  over.  That  is,  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  thought  of  as  passing  over  to  the  object  so  as  to  affect  it. 


THE    INTRANSITIVE    VERB  37 

5.  We   -  -  the   humming   of   busy   bees   among  the 
flowers. 

6.  We  greatly  -     our  visit  to  the  garden. 

7.  We  -  -  some  roses  to  Mabel. 

8.  We   -  -  her  sitting  in  the  shade  of  a  beautiful 
maple. 

9.  She  -  -  a  thrilling  story. 

10.   She  —         -  us  for  bringing  her  the  roses. 

CHAPTER    XVI 

THE    INTRANSITIVE   VERB 

When  we  say,  "Henry  made  a  snowball,"  the  verb 
made  asserts  action,  and  takes  the  object  snowball. 
Hence  made  is  a  transitive  verb.  But  when  we  say, 
"Snow  flies,"  the  verb  -flies  fully  expresses  the  action, 
and  does  not  require  an  object  to  make  its  meaning  clear. 
Since  the  verb  does  not  require  an  object  it  cannot 
be  a  transitive  verb,  but  is  called  Intransitive.  We  have, 
then,  the  definition:— 

A  verb  that  expresses  action  and  does  not  require  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning  is  an  Intransitive  Verb. 

Exercise  45 

Explain  why  the  words  in  italics  in  the  following-  exercise  are 
intransitive  verbs  :— 

1.  Our  boat  -floated  lazily  in  the  quiet  bay. 

2.  Not  a  ripple  played  on  the  glassy  surface  of  the  sea. 

3.  Birds  drowsily  twittered  in  the  grove  near  by. 

4.  Fleecy  white  clouds  scudded  here  and  there. 


38  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

5.  Suddenly  the  sky  darkened  and  the  wind  arose. 

6.  Almost  without  warning  a  furious  storm  came  up. 

7.  A  solemn  silence  fell  upon  the  crew  of  rough  boatmen. 

8.  For  four  or  five  hours  they  struggled  with  the  great 
waves. 

9.  Then  the  rain  slackened  and  the  sunshine  burst  through 
the  clouds. 

In  this  exercise  all  of  the  verbs,  though  intransitive, 
express  action.  But  there  are  some  intransitive  verbs 
that  do  not  express  action.  If,  for  instance,  we  say, 
"The  tired  horseman  rests,"  the  intransitive  verb  rests 
asserts  that  the  horseman  is  in  a  certain  state  or 
condition.  Such  verbs  are  sometimes  called  Verbs  of 
Rest;  as,  for  example,  abound,  dwell,  lie,  pause,  remain, 
repose,  stay,  stop,  tarry,  and  so  on. 

Some  intransitive  verbs  assert  State  or  Condition. 

Exercise  46 

Arrange  the  following  words  in  two  columns,  one  containing 
those  which  may  be  used  as  transitive  verbs,  and  the  other  con- 
taining those  which  may  be  used  as  intransitive  verbs : — 

Take,  lay,  wander,  select,  like,  give,  go,  need,  bake,  sink, 
flatter,  make,  chase,  keep,  place,  touch,  fasten,  stretch,  reach, 
swing,  turn,  ride,  march,  sleep,  stay,  smile,  listen,  choose,  climb, 
ask,  knock,  shudder,  bind,  fall,  hold,  bring,  find,  point,  spend. 

Exercise  Jfl 

Write  six  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the  transitive  verbs 
found  in  Exercise  46;  also  six  with  intransitive  verbs  found  in 
Exercise  46. 


TRANSITIVE    AND    INTRANSITIVE    VERBS    39 

Remember  that  for  a  verb  to  be  transitive  it  must 
assert  action,  and  must  take  some  object  to  complete 
its  meaning.  "The  cow  drank  water."  Why  is  drank 
a  transitive  verb?  "The  cow  drank."  Why  is  drank 
an  intransitive  verb  here? 

It  is  plain  that  many  verbs  may  be  transitive  or  in- 
transitive, according  to  the  way  they  are  used.  In 
general,  the  way  a  word  is  used  determines  the  gram- 
matical name  we  apply  to  it. 

Exercise  48 

Which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  transitive 
and  which  intransitive  1  In  every  case  give  reasons  for  your 
answer : — 

Janet  lived  on  a  rocky  island  off  the  coast  of  Maine.  Her 
father  was  a  fisherman.  Early  every  morning  he  would  go 
away  in  his  boat  to  his  favorite  fishing-ground.  Janet  stayed 
at  home  on  the  island  and  did  the  work  of  the  little  house.  The 
days  went  very  slowly  for  the  young  girl.  But  she  studied  all 
the  shells  and  strange  creatures  cast  up  by  the  sea.  She  gath- 
ered delicate  seaweeds  and  raised  brilliantly  hued  flowers  in  the 
scanty  soil  near  the  house.  One  day  her  father  came  in  with 
an  unopened  letter  in  his  hand.  He  carefully  cut  the  envelope 
and  painfully  spelled  the  longer  words.  At  first  he  hardly 
grasped  the  meaning.  Then  he  lifted  the  lid  of  an  old  chest 
and  dropped  the  letter  in.  For  a  time  he  said  nothing.  At 
last  he  looked  at  his  daughter  and  said,  "  Janet,  your  aunt 
from  Boston  is  coming  to-morrow.  She  has  promised  a 
thousand  dollars  for  your  education." 


40  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    XVII 

THE   COPULA 

You  have  learned  that  a  transitive  verb  asserts 
action  and  requires  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 
You  have  also  learned  that  some  intransitive  verbs 
assert  action,  but  do  not  require  objects  to  complete 
their  meaning;  and  that  others  assert  state  or  condi- 
tion. You  have  now  to  consider  a  peculiar  kind  of 
intransitive  verb  that  of  itself  expresses  no  definite 
idea,  For  example,  if  you  say,  "The  country  is,"  you 
have  the  subject  country  and  the  predicate  is,  but  your 
sentence  is  evidently  unfinished.  If,  however,  you  add 
the  adjective  flat  to  describe  country,  your  assertion 
is  complete.  The  sentence,  "  Napoleon  was,"  conveys 
little  meaning,  but  "Napoleon  was  a  great  general" 
expresses  something  definite.  The  noun  general  in 
the  predicate  explains  Napoleon  in  the  subject.  In  each 
of  these  sentences  the  verb  requires  the  additional 
word  to  complete  its  meaning. 

For  further  illustration,  read  the  following  ex- 
amples :— 

1.  His  figure  was  slight. 

2.  His  shoulders  were  narrow. 

3.  His  eyes  were  blue. 

In  the  first  sentence  what  is  the  connecting  verb? 
What  word  in  the  predicate  does  it  connect  with  its 
subject  figure?  In  the  second  sentence  what  word  in 
the  predicate  does  the  verb  were  connect  with  its  sub- 


THE  COPULA  AND  COPULATIVE  VERBS  41 

ject?  In  the  third,  what  word  in  the  predicate  does 
the  verb  were  connect  with  its  subject?  Such  verbs 
as  was  and  were  in  the  sentences  above  are  called 
Copulas,  because  in  every  instance  they  are  used  to 
connect  some  word  in  the  predicate  with  the  subject. 

You  will  observe  that,  although  the  verb  in  each  of 
these  three  sentences  makes  the  assertion,  the  meaning 
is  incomplete  without  the  words  slight,  narrow,  and 
blue.  These  words,  called  Complements,  form  a  part 
of  the  predicate,  but  they  also  describe  or  explain  the 
subject.  The  office  of  the  verb  in  each  case  is  to  connect 
these  completing  words  with  the  subject. 

Some  intransitive  verbs  may  be  followed  by  nouns  or 
adjectives  explaining  the  subjects.  Such  verbs  include 
the  Copula  and  Copulative  verbs. 

Nouns  and  adjectives  thus  used  are  called  noun  com- 
plements or  adjective  complements. 

NOTE. — The  teacher  should  impress  upon  the  pupil  the  fact 
that  the  function  of  the  complement  is  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  the  sentence.  The  old  word  completement  is  no  longer  used, 
but  it  might  help  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  essential  mean- 
ing of  the  term  complement.  So,  too,  the  term  copula  should  be 
associated  in  the  pupil's  mind  with  the  familiar  word  couple. 
The  copula  of  a  sentence  is  a  verb  which  couples  or  joins  one  or 
more  words  with  the  subject.  A  copulative  verb  is  one  that  behaves 
like  the  copula  in  joining  one  or  more  words  with  the  subject. 

Exercise  J$ 

In  the  following-  sentences  the  words  in  italics  are  copulas  or 
copulative  verbs.  Explain  by  the  aid  of  the  following1  model  why 


42  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

each  is  a  copula  or  a  copulative  verb.  For  instance,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "Nathan  Hale  was  a  spy,"  was  is  a  copula  because  it  joins 
the  noun  complement  spy  to  the  subject  Nathan  Hale: — 

1.  The  captain  was  brave  and  handsome. 

2.  Miss  Quigley  appeared  very  grim  on  an  old  white  pony. 

3.  My  aunt's  horse  was  so  old  that  he  had  become  gray. 

4.  Nothing  could  be  more  pleasant  and  cordial  than   Sir 
Barnes's  manner. 

5.  Gladstone  was  an  English  statesman. 

6.  The  animal  that  seemed  so  tame  grew  suddenly  fierce  and 
vicious. 

7.  If  you  prove  faithful  to  others  they  will  become  and 
remain  your  friends. 

8.  He  grew  rich  very  fast. 

9.  The  sky  became  clear  again. 

10.  That  remark  holds  true  even  yet. 

Exercise  50 
Put  the  following  copulative  verbs  into  short  sentences : — 

Appear,  seem,  become,  look,  sound,  taste,  feel,  grow,  prove, 
remain. 

Exercise  51 

Complete  each  of  the  following  sentences  with  a  suitable  noun 
or  adjective  complement.  Then  explain  the  use  of  each  verb  by 
telling  what  noun  or  adjective  complement  it  requires  to  describe 
or  explain  the  subject.  In  each  of  your  explanations  name  the 
noun  or  adjective  in  the  predicate,  and  the  subject  which  it  de- 
scribes or  explains: — 

1.  The  fall  of  snow  has  been  — 

2.  The  wind  last  night  was  — 


THE    PREDICATE    NOUN  43 

3.  Even  jet  the  air  feels  — 

4.  This  morning  the  country  roads  appear  

5.  All  the  trains  are  - 

6.  It  will  be  -          -  before  they  can  run  again. 

7.  The  station-agent  is  - 

8.  His  own  family  is  -         -  to  get  home. 

9.  The  stories  that  one  hears  sound  — 


10.  Some  think  that  the  roads  will  remain for  days. 

Exercise  52 

Copy  the  sentences  that  you  completed  in  the  foregoing  exer- 
cise, marking  the  subjects  and  their  modifiers  as  before.  Put  two 
straight  lines  under  the  verb  and  three  under  its  complement,  as 
follows  :— 

The  soldiers  were  brave. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    PREDICATE    NOUN 

"The  hunter  was  a  Canadian."  The  copula  was 
connects  the  subject  hunter  with  the  noun  complement 
Canadian,  which  describes  hunter.  The  noun  comple- 
ment is  called  a  Predicate  Noun. 

A  noun  that  follows  a  copula  or  a  copulative  verb  and 
describes  or  explains  its  subject  is  a  Predicate  Noun.1 

Exercise  53 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  copulas.  Explain  also  the 
use  of  the  predicate  nouns  in  italics,  following  the  model  given  in 
Exercise  49:— 

1  See  also  page  119. 


44  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

1.  This  was  the  last  session  of  the  school  for  the  year. 

2.  The  season  was  spring. 

3.  The  weather  was  glorious. 

4.  All  was  silence  for  a  long  time. 

5.  Such  a  spot  is  no  place  for  a  camp. 

6.  The  dark,  moving  shapes  were  Indians  on  the  trail. 

7.  The  warrior  at  the  head  of  the  band  was  the  chief. 

8.  His  head-dress  was  a  tuft  of  feathers. 

Exercise  54 

Use  in  sentences  some  of  the  following  words  as  predicate 
nouns:— 

Village,  traveller,  fame,  beads,  mountains,  horses,  war,  pipe, 
prairie,  coward,  country,  rifle,  children,  statue,  pine-tree,  jour- 
ney, smoke,  neighbor,  soldier,  trade,  whirlwind,  morning,  tent, 
grass,  furs,  robes,  blankets,  occupation,  table-cloth,  cheese, 
venison,  trail,  camp,  trader,  chief,  moccasin. 

Note  that  in  interrogative  sentences,  such  as  "Who 
[What]  am  I?"  "Who  [What]  is  he?"  the  word  fol- 
lowing the  copula  is  the  subject  of  the  verb. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

THE  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE 

In  Chapter  XVII  we  learned  that  the  complement 
of  the  copula  or  the  copulative  verb  is  sometimes  an 
adjective. 

An  adjective  that  follows  the  copula  or  a  copulative  verb 
and  describes  its  subject  is  a  Predicate  Adjective. 


THE    PREDICATE    ADJECTIVE  45 

An  adjective  phrase  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  complement. 
For  example,  "  Bolton  was  in  excellent  condition." 

Exercise  55 

Why  are  the  words  in  italics  in  the  following  sentences  predi- 
cate adjectives  ?  Point  out  and  explain  each  copula  and  each 
copulative  verb: — 

The  October  days  grew  more  and  more  frosty.  The  woods 
turned  golden  and  crimson  and  scarlet.  Every  man  in  the  party 
became  eager  for  an  early  start.  After  some  delay  everything 
was  ready.  Five  of  the  horses  were  brown  and  four  were  bay. 
Few  were  handsome,  but  all  were  fresh  and  active  and  very 
fleet.  At  a  warning  signal  from  the  guide  each  man  was  alert. 
The  new  men  seemed  nervous,  but  they  were  perfectly  quiet. 
For  a  moment  the  suspense  was  painful. 

Exercise  56 

In  the  following  sentences  find  the  subjects,  the  copulas  or 
copulative  verbs,  and  the  predicate  adjectives.  Explain  the  use  of 
the  verbs  and  the  adjectives.  Copy  the  sentences,  as  indicated  in 
Exercise  33  <p.  30),  marking  the  subjects,  the  modifiers  of  the 
subjects,  the  verbs,  and  the  complements:— 

1.  Yesterday  turned  cold  and  wet. 

2.  All  the  birds  grew  quiet. 

3.  The  clouds  hung  low  and  thick. 

4.  Nobody  seemed  very  happy. 

5.  To-day  the  sky  is  blue. 

6.  The  breezes  are  warm. 

7.  Many  trees  are  green. 

8.  Everything  is  pleasant. 

9.  All  the  children  are  good-natured. 


46  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  57 

Use  in  sentences  some  of  the  following  words  as  predicate 
adjectives  :— 

Certain,  sharp,  high,  scarce,  broad,  sandy,  glistening,  sud- 
den, clear,  cold,  blue,  glad,  hollow,  dreary,  lively,  strong,  little, 
quick,  gentle,  brave,  pure,  beautiful,  deep,  calm,  dull,  bright. 


CHAPTER    XX 

THE  ADVERB 

As  already  remarked,  we  often  need  to  use  an  ad- 
jective with  a  noun  in  order  to  express  our  full  mean- 
ing. Similarly,  the  assertion  made  by  a  verb  may 
require  various  sorts  of  modification.  Examine  the 
following  sentences:— 

1.  The  birds  flew. 

2.  The  birds  flew  away. 

3.  The  birds  flew  away  slowly. 

4.  The  birds  flew  away  yesterday. 

How  does  away  make  clearer,  or  modify,  the  mean- 
ing of  flew?  How  does  slowly?  How  does  yesterday? 
Words  thus  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs  are 
called  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  often  modify  the  meaning  of  adjectives; 
as,  very  smooth,  exceedingly  good,  quite  true,  rather 
crooked,  somewhat  sour,  wicommonly  beautiful. 

Adverbs  may  also  modify  the  meaning  of  other 
adverbs;  as,  very  rapidly,  where  very  modifies  the 
meaning  of  the  adverb  rapidly. 


THE    ADVERB  47 

Hence  the  definition:— 

A  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  another  adverb  is  an  Adverb. 

Exercise  58 

What  words  in  the  following  selection  are  used  to  modify  the 
meaning  of  verbs?  In  each  case  tell  which  verb  is  modified:— 

Yesterday  I  took  a  long  ride  through  the  mountains  on 
horseback.  I  started  early  in  the  morning.  The  sun  had  just 
risen.  The  air  was  frosty.  Everywhere  the  grass  and  the 
twigs  glistened  in  the  sunshine.  I  rapidly  gained  the  crest  of 
the  mountain  and  scanned  closely  the  wide  plain  that  stretched 
westward.  The  sun  rose  higher.  Suddenly  I  spied  the  flag 
of  the  fort  waving  gracefully  in  the  breeze. 

Exercise  59 

Complete  each  o.  the  following  sentences  by  using  a  suitable 
adverb  to  modify  the  meaning  of  the  verb.  By  asking  questions 
with  when,  where,  how,  how  long,  how  much,  etc.,  you  will 
easily  find  an  appropriate  word:— 

1.  The  boys  are  walking  - 


2.  In  this  light  I  can  —        —  see. 

3.  The  lightning  flashed  - 

4.  Thunder-showers  come  up  —    in  the  tropics. 

5.  The  shoemaker  sat at  his  work. 

6.  On  the  altar  the  candles  blazed  — 

7.  The  messengers  appeared  - 

8.  The  boat  floated  -         —  down  the  quiet  river. 

9.  He  read  the  letter - 

10.  The  horse  dashed  -          -  through- the  street. 


48  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

11.  She  received  her  guests  - 

12.  I  know  him 

Exercise  60 

Put  into  sentences  the  following  words  as  adverbs  to  modify 
the  meaning  of  verbs  :— 

Quickly,  gently,  smoothly,  now,  then,  to-day,  yesterday, 
politely,  truly,  kindly,  outside,  inside,  well,  usually,  exactly, 
soon,  already,  sensibly,  sternly,  drowsily,  briefly,  often,  some- 
times. 

CHAPTER    XXI 

THE   ADVERBIAL    PHRASE 

Just  as  nouns  may  be  modified  by  phrases,  so,  too, 
may  verbs. 

Compare  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  The  ship  sailed  away. 

2.  The  ship  sailed  through  the  blue  water. 

3.  The  ship  sailed  across  the  sea. 

4.  The  ship  sailed  to  foreign  lands. 

5.  The  ship  sailed  with  a  huge  cargo. 

6.  The  ship  sailed  on  the  first  day  of  June. 

What  word  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  sailed 
in  the  first  sentence?  What  group  of  words  modifies 
sailed  in  the  second  sentence?  What  group  in  the 
third?  What  in  the  fourth?  In  the  fifth?  In  the 
sixth? 

1.  The  book  was  found  on  the  floor. 

2.  The  book  was-  found  under  the  table. 


ADVERBIAL    PHRASES  49 

3.  The  book  was  found  on  the  desk. 

4.  The  book  was  found  upon  the  shelf. 

5.  The  book  was  found  in  the  satchel. 

What  groups  of  words  tell  where  the  book  was  found? 
What  groups,  then,  modify  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
"was  found"? 

Since  all  these  groups  of  words  modify  the  meaning 
of  verbs  they  are  used  like  adverbs.  Each  group  is  a 
phrase,  and  hence  does  not  contain  a  subject  and  a 
predicate.  Such  phrases  we  call  Adverbial  Phrases.  We 
have,  then,  the  definition:— 

A  phrase  that  is  nsed  like  an  adverb  is  an  Adverbial 
Phrase. 

Adverbs  may  also  be  modified  by  adverbial  phrases. 
For  example,  "He  acted  in  some  respects  foolishly." 

Adjectives  may  be  modified  by  adverbial  phrases. 
For  example,  "This  tree  is  dead  at  the  top,"  "This 
light  is  bad  for  the  eyes" 

Exercise  61 

Point  out  the  adverbial  phrases  in  the  following1  sentences,  and 
tell  what  verbs  they  modify.  Copy  the  sentences,  and  draw  under 
each  verb  two  straight  lines  and  under  each  adverb  and  adverbial 
phrase  a  waved  line  with  the  letter  p.  below  it  :— 

We  met  a  squall  that  tore  our  sails  to  pieces.  A  Dutchman 
fell  overboard.  After  a  troubled  voyage  we  came  to  land.  In 
the  morning  there  was  a  heavy  rain,  but  in  the  afternoon 
a  breeze  sprang  up  and  in  an  hour  swept  the  sky  clear.  At 
the  pier  we  found  a  queer-looking  crowd.  In  one  corner  sat 
an  aged  negro,  who  had  come  on  foot  to  see  our  vessel  land. 


50  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

On  the  opposite  side  an  Indian  leaned  against  a  bale  of  cotton, 
and  with  unchanged  expression  gazed  at  us  for  a  full  half- 
hour.  From  all  sides  peddlers  pressed  to  the  front,  deter- 
mined to  sell,  at  the  first  opportunity  and  at  the  highest 
possible  price,  everything  that  they  had. 

Exercise  62 

In  the  following  sentences  fill  out  the  blanks  with  adverbial 
phrases,  and  tell  in  each  case  what  verb  the  phrase  modifies. 
Put  under  each  of  the  adverbial  phrases  a  waved  line  with  the 
letter  p.  below  it  :— 

1.  Our  boat  started —       —  and  arrived 

£. we  saw  some  fine  scenery. 

3.  We  fished - 

4.  The  boy  climbed  — 

5.  He  threw  the  unripe  fruit 

6.  The  flies  buzzed  - 

7.  The  footman  brushed  the  hat  and  hung  it  — 

8.  The  angry  servant  shut  the  door  - 

9.  Come  with  me  - 

10.  Old  Roger  tossed  the  ball  - 

11.  He  held  a  pair  of  worn  gloves  - 

12.  A  row  of  portraits  hung  — 

Thus  far  you  have  found  three  kinds  of  phrases,  ad- 
jective phrases,  verb  phrases,  and  adverbial  phrases. 

Remember  that  a  phrase  never  contains  a  subject 
and  a  predicate,  and  is  always  used  like  an  adjective, 
a  verb,  an  adverb,  or  a  noun.  Hence— 

A  group  of  words  not  containing  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate and  used  as  some  part  of  speech  in  a  Phrase. 


PREPOSITIONS  51 

CHAPTER    XXII 

THE   PREPOSITION    AND   THE    PREPOSITIONAL   PHRASE 

Thus  far  we  have  studied  nouns,  pronouns,  adjec- 
tives, verbs,  and  adverbs.  We  have  next  to  consider 
some  important  words  that  help  to  shape  the  meaning 
of  the  sentence.  One  of  these  words  is  found  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences : — 

1 .  The  boys  went  through  the  village. 

2.  The  boys  looked  across  the  brook. 

3.  The  boys  in  the  tree  were  waving  flags. 

4.  The  boys  stood  behind  the  two  big  trees. 

What  word  shows  the  relation  between  village  and 
went  in  the  first  sentence?  Between  brook  and  looked 
in  the  second  sentence!  Between  tree  and  boys  in  the 
third  sentence!  Between  trees  and  stood  in  the  fourth 
sentence  1 

If  you  take  the  word  through  out  of  the  first  sen- 
tence the  remaining  words  do  not  convey  any  definite 
meaning.  The  same  will  be  found  true  if  you  take 
across,  in,  and  behind  out  of  their  respective  sen- 
tences. In  each  case  the  word  is  needed  to  show  the 
relation  between  the  noun  used  with  it  and  some  other  word. 
Through  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  village 
and  the  verb  went;  across  shows  the  relation  between 
the  noun  brook  and  the  verb  looked;  in  shows  the  re- 
lation between  the  noun  tree  and  the  noun  boys;  and 
behind  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  trees  and 
the  verb  stood. 


52  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Such  words  as  through,  across,  in,  and  behind,  when 
used  to  show  the  relation  between  words  in  the  sen- 
tence, are  called  Prepositions.  Hence  the  definition: — 

A  word  used  to  show  the  relation  between  a  noun  or 
pronoun  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  is  a  Prepo- 
sition. 

THE  PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASE 

You  will  notice  that  the  principal  word  following 
the  preposition  in  each  of  the  examples  given  above 
is  a  noun.  In  the  first  sentence  it  is  the  noun  village. 
What  is  it  in  the  second  ?  In  the  third  ?  In  the  fourth  ? 

The  group  of  words  introduced  by  a  preposition  is 
called  a  Prepositional  Phrase.  In  the  first  sentence  the 
phrase  is  "through  the  village."  What  is  it  in  the 
second?  In  the  third?  In  the  fourth? 

In  the  first  sentence  the  noun  village  is  said  to  be 
the  Object  of  the  preposition  through.  What  is  the 
object  of  the  preposition  across  in  the  second  sentence? 
Of  the  preposition  in  in  the  third  sentence?  Of  the 
preposition  behind  in  the  fourth? 

If  we  say,  "The  stranger  came  to  us,"  "He  spoke 
to  us,"  "He  went  to  the  station  with  me,"  what  prepo- 
sition is  used  in  each  sentence?  What  is  the  object  of 
each  of  these  prepositions  ?  Between  what  words  does 
the  preposition  show  the  relation  in  the  first  sentence? 
In  the  second?  In  the  third?  What  is  the  preposi- 
tional phrase  in  the  first  sentence?  In  the  second?  In 
the  third? 

From  the  study  of  these  sentences  you  observe  that 


PREPOSITIONAL    PHRASES  53 

pronouns,  as  well  as  nouns,  may  be  used  as  the  objects 
of  prepositions. 

Exercise  63 

In  the  following  sentences  what  are  the  objects  of  the  preposi- 
tions ?  What  are  the  prepositional  phrases  ?  In  each  sentence 
point  out  the  words  between  which  the  preposition  shows  the 
relation  :— 

Under  the  pelting  rain  the  snow  melted  rapidly.  Muddy 
streams  dashed  down  the  hills  into  the  little  river.  Great  cakes 
of  ice  crashed  against  the  piers  of  the  old  stone  bridge.  Boats 
were  torn  from  their  moorings.  Rubbish  of  various  sorts  was 
spread  over  fertile  fields.  On  every  side  was  a  scene  of  desola- 
tion and  ruin. 

Exercise  64 

Using  some  of  the  following  prepositions,  make  twenty  prepo- 
sitional phrases  :— 

After,  against,  about,  above,  across,  along,  among,  around, 
at,  before,  below,  beside,  behind,  between,  beyond,  by,  con- 
cerning, down,  during,  except,  for,  from,  in,  into,  off,  on, 
over,  since,  through,  throughout,  to,  till,  toward,  under, 
underneath,  up,  upon,  until,  unto,  with,  within,  without. 

Sometimes  a  group  of  two  or  more  words  is  used 
like  a  preposition.  Such  groups  may  be  called  Phrasal 
Prepositions.  The  following  are  some  of  the  phrasal 
prepositions  most  often  used:— 

According  to,  away  from,  because  of,  by  means  of,  instead 
of,  on  account  of,  out  of. 


54  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  65 

Put  into  sentences  at  least  ten  of  the  prepositional  phrases 
that  you  made  in  the  last  exercise.  Explain  in  each  case  whether 
the  prepositional  phrase  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

Exercise  66 

Put  some  of  the  following  prepositional  phrases  into  sentences. 
In  every  sentence  underscore  the  words  between  which  the  preposi- 
tion shows  the  relation:— 

In  the  shade ;  in  the  valley ;  from  the  woods ;  over  the  river ; 
in  bloom ;  in  winter ;  through  an  opening ;  in  the  yard ;  in  a 
tangle;  between  my  hands;  of  the  birds;  upon  the  stair;  in 
the  corner ;  against  the  tree ;  to  her  nest ;  by  the  wayside ;  under 
the  eaves;  with  their  bright  blossoms;  on  their  perch;  at  the 
time ;  before  the  house. 

Exercise  67,  for  Review 

In  the  following  sentences  select  all  the  phrases  and  explain 
how  each  is  used,— as  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  Draw 
two  straight  lines  under  each  verb  or  verb-phrase,  and  a  waved 
line  with  the  letter  p.  below  it  under  each  adverbial  phrase:— 

Our  steamer  sailed  late  in  the  afternoon.  We  had  expected 
to  start  earlier,  but  a  thick  white  fog  crept  up  the  bay  and 
hid  everything.  At  noon  we  could  hardly  see  the  masts.  I 
had  bought  a  newspaper  of  a  ragged  little  fellow,  but  I  could 
not  read  it  in  the  clammy  mist,  and  I  was  unwilling  to  stay  in 
the  crowded,  stuffy  cabin.  The  fog  hung  over  the  bay  until 
four  o'clock.  Then  suddenly  I  saw  a  flash  of  sunlight  on  the 
deck  and  felt  a  fresh  breeze.  In  half  an  hour  the  fog  was 
swept  off  to  the  east,  so  that  we  could  see  the  open  ocean  break- 
ing on  the  beach  far  away.  On  every  side  of  us  were  vessels 


THE    NOUN    USED    AS    AN    ADVERB          55 

at  anchor.  In  front  lay  a  square  little  craft  with  brown 
sails.  Beside  her  was  a  large  schooner,  with  three  tall  masts. 
There  were  great  ocean-steamers,  coasting- vessels,  fishing- 
boats,  barges  full  of  coal,  all  perfectly  quiet.  We  did  not 
delay  much  longer.  Our  anchor  was  heaved  up ;  our  whistle 
blew;  and  soon  we  were  on  our  way  at  full  speed. 

CHAPTER    XXIII 

THE    NOUN    USED   AS   AN    ADVERB 

Yon  have  already  been  told  that  the  way  in  which 
a  word  is  used  in  a  sentence  determines  what  part 
of  speech  you  are  to  call  it.  You  are  now  to  see 
how  a  noun  becomes  an  adverb.  Note  the  following 

sentences  :— 

1.  Birds  that  dislike  our  winters  go  home  to  the  South 
before  the  winter  begins. 

2.  In  so  doing  they  travel  many  hundred  miles. 

3.  They  remain  away  from  us  several  months. 

4.  Last  Thursday  a  flock  of  crows  flew  away  on  their  winter 
trip. 

Whither  do  the  birds  go!  What  noun  indicates  this? 
How  far  do  they  travel  !  What  noun  tells  us  !  How  long 
do  they  remain  away,  and  when  did  a  flock  of  crows 
start  off!  What  nouns  answer  the  questions! 

Nouns  that  indicate  which  way,  how  far,  how  long, 
or  time  when  are  used  as  adverbs.  In  the  first  sen- 
tence the  noun  home  is  used  as  an  adverb  to  modify 
the  meaning  of  the  verb  go  by  telling  which  way  birds 


56  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

go.  In  the  second  sentence  how  does  the  noun  miles 
modify  the  verb  travel0/  In  the  third  sentence  what 
verb  does  months  modify?  What  verb  does  Thursday 
modify  in  the  fourth! 

Nouns  are  sometimes  used  as  adverbs. 

f 

Exercise  68 

In  the  following  sentences  what  question  does  each  noun  used  as 
an  adverb  answer,  and  what  word  does  each  modify  I 

1.  The  chipmunk  sat  still  five  or  six  minutes,  and  then  ran 
hurriedly  to  the  ground. 

2.  Last  year  a  wood-thrush  built  her  nest  in  one  of  our  trees. 

3.  One  day  I  found  a  hawk's  nest  full  of  eggs. 

4.  Last  Wednesday  there  was  a  heavy  snow-storm. 

5.  Next  week  our  friends  will  sail  for  Bermuda. 

6.  Before   Raymond  could  fire,  the  elk   was  two  hundred 
yards  away. 

7.  The  fort  was  distant  two  days'  journey. 

8.  Last  September  our  friends  had  fine  fishing  in  the  lake. 

9.  The  camp,  that  season,  was  beside  the  Cedar  Rapids. 
10.  One  evening  the  fisherman  came  up  the  rocks  dragging 

a  young  seal  behind  him. 

If  a  noun  is  preceded  by  a  preposition  the  noun  is  of  course  the 
object  of  the  preposition.  Some  nouns  used  as  adverbs  may  thus 
become  a  part  of  prepositional  (adverbial)  phrases.  For  example, 
in  the  first  sentence,  we  may  say,  "for  five  or  six  minutes";  in  the 
ninth  sentence,  "during  that  season."  In  some  cases  there  is 
little  choice  between  the  forms:  in  others,  there  is  a  decided 
advantage  in  using  one  rather  than  the  other. 


THE    INDIRECT    OBJECT  57 

Exercise  69 
Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  used  as  an  adverb. 

Exercise  70,  for  Review 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  prepositional  phrase  used 
as  an  adjective. 

Exercise  71,  for  Review 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  prepositional  phrase  used 
as  an  adverb. 

CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE    INDIRECT   OBJECT   OF   THE   TRANSITIVE   VERB 

Why  is  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following  sentences 
transitive?  What  is  the  direct  object  of  each  of  these 
verbs  ? 

1.  Rip  told  his  story. 

2.  The  guide  showed  the  trail. 

3.  Jean  gave  a  dollar. 

Now  read  the  following  sentences,  which  still  retain 
the  direct  objects,  and  note  the  additions:— 

4.  Rip  told  his  story  to  the  stranger. 

5.  Rip  told  the  stranger  his  story. 

6.  The  guide  showed  the  trail  to  Ronald. 

7.  The  guide  showed  Ronald  the  trail. 

8.  Jean  gave  a  dollar  to  the  beggar. 

9.  Jean  gave  the  beggar  a  dollar. 

To  whom  did  Rip  tell  his  story?  To  whom  did  the 
guide  show  the  trail?  To  whom  did  Jean  give  a  dollar? 


58  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

In  every  case  where  the  preposition  is  expressed  the 
answer  points  out  the  object  of  the  preposition;  in 
every  case  where  the  preposition  is  not  expressed  the 
answer  points  out  the  Indirect  Object  of  the  Transitive 
Verb.  You  will  observe,  also,  that  when  there  is  both 
a  direct  and  an  indirect  object  the  indirect  object 
stands  nearer  the  verb  than  the  direct  object  does,  and 
that  it  answers  the  question  To  whom?  By  asking  the 
questions  To  whom  or  For  whom?  and  To  what  or  For 
what?  we  can  find  the  indirect  object  of  a  transitive 
verb.  We  have,  then,  the  definition  :— 

When  the  action  of  a  transitive  verb  is  merely  directed 
toward  an  object,  this  object  is  said  to  be  the  Indirect 
Object. 

Exercise  72 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  and  explain  all  transi- 
tive verbs,  all  direct  objects,  and  all  indirect  objects.  Ask  the 
proper  questions  to  find  the  direct  and  the  indirect  objects: — 

1.  The  traveller  told  Donald  a  long  story. 

2.  Ralph  paid  his  cousin  frequent  visits. 

3.  A  door  left  ajar  gave  him  a  peep  into  the  best  parlor. 

4.  The  captain  ordered  him  a  good  dinner  on  the  spot. 

5.  Soon  the  fragrant  odors  from  the  kitchen  gave  him  an 
appetite. 

6.  "  Pray  do  me  the  favor  of  dining  with  me  again  to- 
morrow," said  the  officer. 

7.  The  engineer  promised  him  a  finished  plan  for  the  pro- 
posed fort. 

8.  When  the  captain  went  away  he  left  the  engineer  five 
hundred  dollars. 


SIMPLE    AND    COMPLETE    PREDICATES      59 

Exercise  73 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  transitive  verbs  that  often 
take  an  indirect  object.  Write  at  least  six  sentences,  in  each  of 
which  you  supply  one  of  these  verbs  with  an  indirect  object:— 

Do,  refuse,  give,  leave,  send,  forgive,  bring,  tell,  write,  lend, 
owe,  allow,  grant,  show,  yield,  throw,  pay,  make,  present, 
answer,  hand,  pass. 

Exercise  74 

Rewrite  the  sentences  in  Exercise  72  in  such  a  way  as  to  put 
all  the  indirect  objects  into  prepositional  phrases.  What  other 
changes  do  you  notice  in  the  new  sentences  in  every  case? 

NOTE. — It  is  important  to  remark  that  the  indirect  object  is  equivalent 
to  a  prepositional  phrase  and  is  a  modifier  of  the  verb. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

THE  SIMPLE    PREDICATE   AND   THE   COMPLETE    PREDICATE 

We  have  noted  the  difference  between  the  simple 
subject  and  the  complete  subject.  We  have  now  to 
consider  the  difference  between  the  simple  predicate 
and  the  complete  predicate.  Examine  the  following 
sentences : — 

1.  Antelopes  were  running  lightly. 

2.  Antelopes  were  running  lightly  in  all  directions. 

3.  Antelopes  were  running  lightly  over  the  plains. 

4.  Antelopes  were  running  lightly  at  break  of  day. 

In  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences  the  words  were 
running  are  used  to  make  an  assertion  about  the  ante- 


60  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

lopes.  Were  running,  therefore,  is  a  verb.  It  is  also 
the  Simple  Predicate  of  each  sentence.  In  the  first  sen- 
tence lightly  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  were  run- 
ning, because  it  tells  how  the  antelopes  were  running. 
By  combining  the  simple  predicate  were  running  with 
its  modifier  lightly  we  form  the  Complete  Predicate  were 
running  lightly. 

In  the  second  sentence  what  adverb  and  what  phrase 
modify  the  meaning  of  the  verb  were  running?  Unite 
these  modifiers  with  the  simple  predicate  and  you  have 
the  Complete  Predicate. 

What  are  the  modifiers  of  the  verb  in  the  third  sen- 
tence? What  is  the  complete  predicate?  What  are 
the  modifiers  and  the  complete  predicate  in  the  fourth 
sentence?  How  would  the  sentence  read  with  all  the 
modifiers  combined? 

The  Simple  Predicate  consists  of  a  verb. 

The  Complete  Predicate  consists  of  a  verb  with  its 
complements  and  modifiers. 

Exercise  75 

In  the  following  sentences  find  first  the  simple  predicates ;  then 
put  with  them  their  complements  and  modifiers  to  form  the  com- 
plete predicates.  If  the  simple  predicate  has  no  complement  and  no 
modifier,  it  is  simple  and  complete  at  the  same  time:— 

1.  The  yellow  sunshine  flooded  the  hills. 

2.  The  maples  flamed  with  scarlet  and  purple  and  gold. 

3.  A  lumbering  brown  bear  pattered  down  the  rocky  slope 
to  a  bubbling  spring. 

4.  A  deer  watched  the  bear  from  a  neighboring  thicket. 


SIMPLE    AND    COMPLETE    PREDICATES      61 

5.  Then  a  light  breeze  came  down  from  the  hills. 

6.  It  ruffled  the  surface  of  the  lake  with  broken  curves. 

7.  The  reflections  vanished  from  the  water. 

8.  A  hunter  kindled  a  fire  on  the  bank  of  the  lake. 

9.  The  smoke  rose  in  thick  clouds. 

10.   Suddenly  the  hunter  paused  with  his  hand  to  his  ear. 

Exercise  76 

Indicate  by  lines,  as  before  directed  (pp.  30,  43),  the  simple 
subjects  with  their  modifiers  and  the  simple  predicates  with  their 
modifiers  and  complements  in  Exercise  75. 

Exercise  77 

In  the  following  sentences  find  the  simple  and  the  complete 
predicates  :— 

Early  in  the  evening  the  two  children  started  for  home. 
Their  path  lay  over  the  steep  ridge  of  the  mountain.  Here 
and  there  the  way  was  very  narrow.  The  chilly  air  threatened 
snow.  But  they  went  off  with  a  laughing  "  Good-by."  The 
old  shepherd  silently  shook  his  head,  with  an  anxious  look. 
Then  he  said  to  himself,  "  We  shall  have  snow  in  an  hour  or 
two."  An  hour  passed.  The  sheep  were  safe  in  the  fold.  The 
cows  were  fed.  A  bright  fire  crackled  on  the  hearth.  But  the 
shepherd  was  uneasy.  From  time  to  time  he  looked  out  of  the 
door.  The  sky  had  grown  very  black.  Then  a  whirling  flake 
of  snow  fell  on  the  old  man's  hand.  The  dreaded  storm  had 
begun.  He  hastily  caught  up  his  cap  and  his  heavy  staff.  A 
moment  later,  with  his  lighted  lantern  held  high  above  his  head, 
he  hurried  toward  the  ridge  with  his  shaggy  dog  bounding 
beside  him. 


62  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

A    REVIEW 

What  is  a  verb?  A  verb-phrase?  Select  five  verbs 
and  three  verb-phrases  from  Exercise  77.  Write  five 
sentences  with  a  verb-phrase  in  each. 

What  is  a  transitive  verb?  An  intransitive  verb? 
How  does  a  transitive  verb  differ  from  an  intransi- 
tive verb  that  expresses  action?  Illustrate  this  dif- 
ference by  writing  four  short  sentences. 

What  is  a  copulative  verb?  Explain  the  difference 
between  the  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  and  the 
complement  of  a  copulative  verb.  Illustrate  this  dif- 
ference by  writing  four  sentences. 

What  is  an  adverb?  An  adverbial  phrase?  Write 
three  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  adverbs  and 
three  illustrating  the  use  of  adverbial  phrases.  Write 
two  sentences,  the  first  containing  an  adjective  phrase 
and  the  second  an  adverbial  phrase.  Write  five  sen- 
tences to  illustrate  the  indirect  object. 

CHAPTER    XXVII 

NOUNS    USED    INDEPENDENTLY    BY    DIRECT    ADDRESS 

We  often  have  occasion  to  address  others,  either  by 
their  proper  names  or  by  a  name  common  to  a  group 
of  persons.  Note  the  following:— 

1.  "  Boys,  are  you  ready  for  our  game  of  base-ball?  " 

2.  "  Yes,  Tom,  you  know  we  are  always  ready." 

3.  "  Mr.  Hudson,  will  you  be  our  umpire?  " 


NOUNS    USED    INDEPENDENTLY  63 

In  the  first  sentence  to  whom  does  Tom  address  his 
question!  Who  is  addressed  by  name  in  the  second  sen- 
tence? In  the  third  sentence? 

The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  said  to 
be  used  Independently  by  Direct  Address. 

Exercise  78 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  name  of  the  person  or 
thing  addressed,  and  notice  how  in  every  case  it,  with  its  modifiers 
(if  it  has  any),  is  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more 
commas : — 

As  the  general  looked  anxiously  down  the  dusty  road  he  saw 
a  messenger  in  uniform  galloping  toward  him.  In  a  moment 
the  man  had  dismounted.  "  A  letter  for  you,  General,"  said  he 
respectfully,  holding  out  a  soiled  envelope.  "  Well,  my  man," 
said  the  general,  "  you  seem  to  have  had  a  hard  ride.  Orderly, 
give  this  man  a  glass  of  water.  Colonel  Newcome,  I  wish  to 
see  you  a  moment.  Captain  Briggs,  will  you  keep  your  eye 
on  that  ridge  beyond  the  river?  Lieutenant  Martin,  you  will 
hold  your  men  ready  for  an  instant  advance."  Then,  turning 
toward  the  soldiers  drawn  up  in  line,  he  added,  "  I  have  only 
one  word  to  say  to  you,  my  men :  everything  to-day  depends 
upon  you." 

Exercise  79 

Write  sentences  in  each  of  which  you  represent  some  one  of  the 
following  persons  as  being  addressed.  You  may  ask  a  question, 
express  a  command,  or  make  a  request:— 

A  coachman;  a  conductor;  a  boy;  a  group  of  boys;  a 
group  of  girls;  a  governor;  a  judge;  a  presiding  officer; 


64  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Mr.   Simmons ;   Mrs.    Herbert ;    Miss   Holman ;   your   uncle ; 
your  aunt;  your  grandfather;  your  cousin. 

CHAPTER    XXVIII 

THE    INTERJECTION 

We  may  sometimes  crowd  much  meaning  into  a 
single  word,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  "  Hurrah!  "  shouted  officers  and  soldiers  alike. 

2.  Oh!  what  good  news. 

3.  Ah!  you  don't  mean  it,  do  you? 

4.  Pshaw!  the  whole  story  is  absurd  and  ridiculous. 

In  the  foregoing  sentences  the  words  in  italics  ex- 
press strong  feeling  or  emotion.  Hurrah  expresses  joy 
and  exultation ;  oh,  delight ;  all,  surprise ;  and  pshaw, 
disgust.  Words  so  used  have  no  grammatical  connec- 
tion with  the  other  words  of  the  sentence  in  which 
they  occur,  but  are  interjected  or  "thrown  in"  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  joy,  sadness,  wonder,  pity,  pain, 
or  some  other  sudden  or  intense  emotion  felt  by  the 
writer  or  speaker.  Such  words  are  called  Interjections. 

The  interjection  oh  may  be  used  in  spoken  language 
to  express  various  emotions,  the  tone  of  voice  indicat- 
ing the  feeling  of  the  speaker.  The  same  is  true  of 
some  other  interjections. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  strong  feeling 
or  emotion. 


INTERJECTIONS  65 

Since  as  a  rule  the  interjection  has  no  grammatical  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  some  grammarians  would  not  include 
it  among  the  parts  of  speech. 

Exercise  80 
Point  out  the  interjections  in  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  Shame!     How  dare  you  play  such  a  trick  on  an  old 
man? 

2.  Good !  good !     I'm  glad  of  it. 

3.  Lo!    this  is  the  joyful  day. 

4.  Alas!  there  is  no  hope  for  him. 

5.  Hello!  give  me  number  forty-one. 

6.  Bravo,  my  boy !     Remember  all  I  have  told  you ! 

7.  Whew !  how  hot  it  is  here ! 

8.  Oh !  if  I  had  only  known ! 

9.  Ah!  as  usual,  he  is  looking  out  for  himself. 

10.  Pshaw!  don't  stay  there. 

11.  Oh!  don't  hit  me  in  that  way  again. 

12.  Alas !  those  days  will  never  return. 

13.  "  Fie,  fie!  "  said  the  major,  who  was  fond  of  old-fash- 
ioned phrases. 

All  interjections  are  exclamations,  and  hence  the 
exclamation  point  [ !]  usually  follows  the  interjection, 
but  it  sometimes  stands  at  the  end  of  the  exclamatory 
sentence  or  expression. 

Exercise  81 
Frame  sentences  to  include  the  following  interjections:— 

Oh,  ah,  pshaw,  hurrah,  hush,  nonsense. 


66  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    XXIX 

THE  CLAUSE 

It  is  often  desirable  to  have  more  than  one  way  of 
expressing  the  same  thought.  For  example, 

1.  Washington  was  a  fearless  man. 

2.  Washington  was  a  man  without  fear. 

3.  Washington  was  a  man  who  did  not  fear  danger. 

4.  The  man  in  the  carriage  was  the  governor  of  New  York. 

5.  The  man  that  sat  in  the  carriage  was  the  governor  of 
New  York. 

What  words  are  used  to  modify  mem  in  the  first 
sentence?  What  group  of  words  is  so  used  in  the 
second  sentence?  What  group  in  the  third  sentence? 
Why  is  without  fear  a  phrase?  Why  can  we  not  call 
"who  did  not  fear  danger "  a  phrase? 

In  the  fourth  sentence  what  group  of  words  de- 
scribes man?  You  will  remember  (p.  52)  that  such 
a  group  of  words  is  called  a  prepositional  phrase,  and 
that  when  used,  as  it  is  here,  to  describe  a  noun,  it  is 
called  an  adjective  phrase.  You  will  also  remember 
that  a  phrase  contains  neither  subject  nor  predicate. 

In  the  fifth  sentence  the  group  of  words  used  to 
describe  man  is  "who  sat  in  the  carriage."  This 
group  of  words,  like  the  phrase,  is  used  as  a  part  of 
speech,  but  it  contains  the  subject  who  and  the  predi- 
cate sat.  It  is,  therefore,  not  a  phrase,  but  a  Clause. 

We  have,  then,  the  definition: — 


CLAUSES  67 

A  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a  predicate 
and  used  as  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  a  Clause. 

Exercise  82 

In  the  following  sentences  tell  whether  the  italicized  groups  of 
words  are  phrases  or  clauses,  in  every  case  giving  reasons.  What 
does  each  italicized  phrase  or  clause  modify  2 

1.  The   old   man   in   the   corner   looked    grimly    at   the 
stranger  who  entered. 

2.  The  young  man,  who  was  very  nervous,  said  nothing 
for  a  moment. 

3.  Then  the  old  man  raised  the  heavy  cane  that  lie  always 
carried. 

4.  The  visitor,  who  was  watching  every  movement,  drew 
back  a  little. 

5.  "  Are  you  the  young  fellow  who  came  to  the  village 
last  week?  " 

6.  "  Did  you  see  the  advertisement  that  I  put  into  the 
paper?  " 

7.  "  Yes,  I  thought  I  could  do  the  work  that  you  wanted 
to  have  done." 

8.  "  I  have  studied  in  the  new  school  of  forestry,  which  is 
probably  the  best  in  the  country." 

9.  "  Well,  I  want  somebody  who  knows  how  to  manage 
a  farm." 

10.  "  Most  of  the  young  fellows  in  this  town  hardly  know 
what  work  is." 

Exercise  83 

In  the  following  sentences  find  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in 
each  italicized  group  of  words.  What  noun  or  pronoun  does  each 
italicized  group  of  words  modify  2 


68  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

1.  The  man  who  thoroughly  understands  his  business  is  not 
often  without  employment. 

2.  People  who  talk  loudest  sometimes  know  least. 

3.  The  sirocco  is  a  hot,  dry  wind  that  scorches  the  leaves 
on  the  trees. 

4.  We  live  in  the  house  that  you,  see  on  the  Mil. 

5.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

6.  The  small  trees  that  bear  the  red  apples  are  the  best. 

7.  A  boy  that  is  always  playing  may  have  to  work  some  day. 

8.  He  who  hunts  for  flowers  will  find  flowers ;  and  he  who 
loves  weeds  may  find  weeds. 

9.  The  cynic  is  one  who  never  sees  a  good  quality  in  a  man 
and  never  fails  to  see  a  bad  one. 

A  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate and  used  as  a  part  of  speech  is  called  a  Dependent 
Clause. 

Explain  why  each  of  the  italicized  groups  of  words  in  the  fore- 
going exercise  is  a  dependent  clause. 


CHAPTER    XXX 

THE  CLAUSE   USED   AS  AN    ADJECTIVE 
RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

In  the  following  sentences  you  will  find  some  short, 
but  very  important,  words  used  unlike  any  others  you 
have  yet  studied:— 

1.  A  poor  woman  who  lived  near  a  little  English  village 
had  an  only  son. 

£.  This  boy,  who  was  called  Jack,  was  unwilling  to  work. 


RELATIVE    PRONOUNS  69 

3.  One  day  he  sold  his  mother's  cow  for  some  odd-looking 
beans,  which  he  planted  in  the  garden. 

What  is  the  adjective  clause  in  the  first  sentence? 
How  do  you  know?  What  word  connects  this  clause 
with  the  noun  woman?  What  is  the  adjective  clause 
in  the  second  sentence!  What  word  connects  it  with 
the  noun  boy?  What  is  the  adjective  clause  in  the 
third  sentence?  What  word  connects  it  with  the  noun 
beans? 

You  have  already  learned  that  a  pronoun  is  a  word 
used  instead  of  a  noun.  Who,  which,  and  that  are  so 
used  in  the  exercises  illustrating  this  lesson.  But  who, 
which,  and  that  usually  refer  back,  or  relate,  to  some 
noun  going  before.  Hence  they  are  called  Relative 
Pronouns.  The  noun  to  which  they  relate  is  called  the 
Antecedent.1 

We  have,  then,  the  definition:— 

A  pronoun  used  to  connect  a  dependent  clause  with  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  main  clause  is  a  Relative  Pronoun. 

The  principal  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which, 
what,  and  that. 

Exercise  84 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  adjective  clauses,  and  tell 
what  word  connects  each  clause  with  some  noun  in  the  rest  of  the 
sentence : — 

1 .  The  slope  of  the  hill,  which  was  very  steep,  was  covered 
with  rolling  stones. 

1  Antecedent  means  going  before. 


70  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

2.  Upon  the  hill  were  two  great  buildings,  the  cathedral, 
which  overlooked  the  river,  and  the  castle,  which  frowned  down 
on  the  plain. 

3.  The  sky,  which  had  been  blue,  turned  to  a  dark  gray. 

4.  The  coachman,  who  drove  the  shining  horses,  had  a 
portly  figure. 

5.  The  squire  was  a  man  who  disliked  parade. 

6.  The  island  was  a  rocky  place  that  was  hard  to  reach. 

7.  In  the  path  of  the  storm  were  sights  that  made  the 
watchman  turn  pale. 

8.  He  uttered  a  cry  that  no  one  heard. 

9.  Before  him  lay  a  heavy  timber  that  two  strong  men 
could  hardly  move. 

10.  But  he  was  a  man  that  was  not  easily  daunted. 

Exercise  85 

In  Exercises  82,  83,  and  84  select  the  relative  pronouns  and 
the  antecedents  of  each. 

Exercise  86 
Write  six  sentences,  each  containing1  an  adjective  clause. 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

THE  CLAUSE  USED  AS  AN  ADVERB 

As  often  remarked  before,  a  word  that  modifies  a 
verb  is  an  adverb.  But  the  modifier  of  a  verb  may 
be  not  merely  a  single  word,  but  a  phrase  or  a 
clause.  Observe  the  italicized  words  in  the  following 
sentences : — 


ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES  71 

1.  While  we  were  in  the  town,  a  company  of   immigrants 
passed  through. 

2.  As  they  crossed  an  open  meadow,  they  were  attacked  by 
roving  Indians. 

3.  When  the  Indians  saw  the  resolute  front  of  the  immi- 
grants, they  retreated  in  confusion. 

How  do  you  know  that  the  italicized  groups  of  words 
are  used  as  adverbs?  How  do  you  know  they  are 
clauses  1 

Exercise  87 

Copy  the  following  sentences  and  draw  a  line  under  each  group 
of  words  used  as  an  adverbial  clause.  In  each  case  explain  why 
the  group  is  a  clause  and  why  it  is  an  adverbial  clause:— 

1.  When  you  have  time,  tell  me  all  about  your  trip. 

2.  Do  as  well  as  you  can. 

3.  He  was  in  good  health  as  long  as  he  was  in  Colorado. 

4.  While  I  am  waiting  for  the  postman,  I  will  write  a  few 
words  more. 

5.  Wherever  he  is  he  finds  work  to  do. 

6.  Dinner  is  served  as  soon  as  the  boat  leaves  the  pier. 

7.  Frank  had  to  leave   school  after  his   father  went  to 
Europe. 

8.  Our  school  closes  when  the  hot  weather  begins. 

9.  The  vacation  continues  until  the  cool  days  of  September 
come. 

10.  There  has  been  no  good  skating  since  the  races  were  held 
on  the  ice. 

11.  Before  you  write  anything,  spend  some  time  in  thinking. 


thing 


72  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

12.  After  you  have  been  in  France  a  year,  you  will  probably 
understand  French  well. 

13.  When  I  am  rich  I  shall  be  glad  to  help  you. 

Exercise  88 
Write  six  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverbial  clause. 

CHAPTER    XXXII 

THE   CLAUSE    USED   AS  A   NOUN 

A  group  of  words  taken  as  a  whole  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  noun,  just  as  if  the  group  were  a  single 
word.  For  example,  note  the  clauses  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

1.  The  colonel  learned  that  the  messenger  had  come. 
&.  The  messenger  told  him  how  near  the  enemy  was. 
3.  The  colonel  told  his  men  that  they  must  conquer  or  die. 

What  did  the  colonel  learn?  What  group  of  words 
answers  the  question?  Why  would  you  call  this  group 
a  noun!  Why  is  it  a  dependent  clause!  What  did 
the  messenger  tell  the  colonel?  What  did  the  colonel 
tell  his  men!  What  group  of  words  answers  each  of 
these  questions!  How  is  each  group  used  as  a  de- 
pendent clause  and  also  as  a  noun? 

Exercise  89 

Explain  why  each  italicized  group  of  words  in  the  following- 
exercise  is  a  noun-clause:— 

1.  What  is  true  of  this  book  is  true  of  all  books  published 
within  the  last  twenty  years. 


NOUN-CLAUSES  73 

2.  He  feared  that  Tie  might  never  escape  from  the  island. 

3.  What  we  want  to  do  is  not  always  what  we  ought  to  do. 

4.  You  have  already  learned  that  some  patience  is  needed 
in  studying  English  grammar. 

5.  I  see  in  the  paper  that  there  has  been  a  great  fire  in  New 
York. 

6.  I  will  tell  you  where  I  live. 

7.  I  cannot  say  how  sorry  I  am. 

8.  I  hear  there  was  a  disturbance  last  night  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  city. 

9.  Few  of  the  guests  knew  who  the  stranger  was. 

10.  I  wish  the  Colonel  were  in  Calcutta. 

11.  They  say  a  mule  will  walk  over  a  trestle  bridge  like 
a  dog. 

12.  He  noticed  that  the  house  was  surrounded  by  a  high 
stone  wall. 

13.  I  hardly  remember  who  was  there. 

14.  I  thought  that  I  heard  somebody  speak. 

15.  Can  you  guess  what  I  have  in  my  hand? 

You  will  observe  from  a  study  of  these  and  other  sentences  that 
noun-clauses  used  as  subjects  are  much  less  frequent  than  noun- 
clauses  used  as  objects. 

A  noun-clause  may  be  used  as  an  appositive.  For 
example, 

The  hope  that  they  may  one  day  be  rich  is  wonderfully 
attractive  to  some  people. 

The  governor  has  sent  word  that  he  cannot  come  to-day. 


74  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    XXXIII 

THE   COMPLEX    SENTENCE 

We  have  learned  that  a  simple  sentence  contains  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate.  We  have  learned,  too, 
that  a  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a 
predicate  and  used  as  some  part  of  speech  is  a  de- 
pendent clause. 

Let  us  see  what  we  find  in  the  following  sentences  :— 

1 .  While  the  band  played  the  people  stood  motionless. 

2.  The  orator,  who  moved  his  hearers  at  will,  was  a  plain 
workingman. 

3.  When  he  stopped  speaking  the  applause  was  long  and 
loud. 

How  do  you  know  that  the  italicized  group  of  words 
in  each  of  these  sentences  is  a  dependent  clause?  By 
taking  the  dependent  clause  out  of  each  of  the  sen- 
tences you  have  the  following  expressions  left:— 

4.  The  people  stood  motionless. 

5.  The  orator  was  a  plain  workingman. 

6.  The  applause  was  loud  and  long. 

When  a  simple  sentence  is  a  part  of  another  sen- 
tence it  is  called  a  Clause.  A  clause  that  forms  a  com- 
plete sentence  when  taken  by  itself  is  called  a  Main 
or  Independent  Clause.  All  other  clauses  are  Dependent 
Clauses.  The  three  sentences  above  that  contain  main 
and  dependent  clauses  are  called  Complex. 

We  have,  then,  the  definition:— 


COMPLEX    SENTENCES  75 

A  sentence  that  contains  a  main  or  independent  clause 
and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses  is  called  a  Complex 
Sentence. 

Observe  that  commas  are  often  used  to  separate  de- 
pendent clauses  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  But  if 
the  connection  in  thought  is  very  close  the  comma 
should  be  omitted. 

Exercise  90 

In  the  following  paragraphs  point  out  the  complex  sentences  and 
the  simple  sentences,  and  explain  why  each  is  simple  or  complex : — 

The  barn  that  we  built  last  year  is  much  too  small.  An 
architect  who  happened  to  be  in  town  for  a  few  days  drew  the 
plans.  But  there  are  some  things  that  we  should  have  ar- 
ranged differently.  For  instance,  the  door  that  was  placed  in 
the  corner  nearest  the  house  is  of  no  use  to  us.  The  space  that 
is  wasted  in  our  carriage-room  would  be  useful  in  the  harness- 
room.  But,  unfortunately,  the  week  when  the  architect  was 
here  was  a  time  when  father  had  to  be  out  of  town. 

The  garden  where  they  were  sitting  had  been  planted  two 
centuries  before.  It  was  full  of  great  rose-bushes,  tangled 
vines,  and  beds  of  bright  old-fashioned  flowers.  A  bubbling 
fountain  splashed  softly  in  the  midst  of  the  long  rich  grass. 
The  shadows  grew  longer  as  the  sun  slowly  sank.  Nothing 
broke  the  stillness  except  the  falling  water.  Everything  seemed 
like  a  dream  of  the  days  that  had  long  since  vanished. 

Exercise  91 

In  Exercises  82,  83,  and  84  point  out  the  dependent  clauses 
that  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more 
commas. 


76  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  92 

In  the  following  sentences  what  are  the  principal  clauses  and 
the  dependent  clauses,  and  why?  Explain  how  each  dependent 
clause  is  used,— whether  as  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  noun:— 

1.  Since  he  had  arrived  on  the  island  he  had  seen  no  human 
being. 

£.  He  listened  to  the  steady  drip,  drip,  of  the  water  as  it 
fell  to  the  floor  of  the  cavern. 

3.  He  did  not  know  how  long  he  had  been  lying  there. 

4.  The  fear  that  he  might  slip  from  the  narrow  shelf  of 
rock  into  the  boiling  flood  below  made  him  tremble. 

5.  If  you  pass  his  door,  you  will  probably  hear  him  singing. 

6.  He  would  not  talk  so  much  if  you.  would  talk  more. 

7.  If  you  had  moved,  the  lion  would  have  sprung. 

8.  The  place  where  this  occurred  was  about  a  mile  from 
the  town. 

9.  I  remember  the  day  when  I  first  saw  him. 

10.  Where    once   the   bark    canoe    lay    along    the    strand, 
steamers  now  lie  moored  along  the  crowded  levee. 

11.  Where  the  stream  had  overflowed  the  bank,  mud  was 
heaped  up  in  long  ridges. 

12.  The  crash  of  falling  trees  resounded  in  front,  where  a 
hundred  axemen  labored  with  ceaseless  toil  to  hew  a  passage  for 
the  army. 

13.  The  painter  turned  as  he  spoke. 

14.  While  they  were  laughing  and  talking  together,  they 
met  a  party  of  Frenchmen. 

15.  As  the  carriage  rolled  out  of  sight  he  turned  away 
from  the  window. 


COMPOUND    SENTENCES  77 

Exercise  93,  for  Review 

In  the  following  paragraph  select  all  the  simple  and  all  the 
complex  sentences,  and  explain  why  they  are  simple  or  complex  :— 

On  the  edge  of  the  deep  pit  which  he  had  dug  the  miner  stood 
holding  a  large  stone  in  his  hand.  Gleams  of  dull  yellow  shone 
on  the  rough  surface  as  the  sunlight  struck  it.  He  sat  for  a 
time  on  the  grass.  The  birds  that  were  perched  just  above  his 
head  sang  as  if  they  knew  what  had  happened.  That  stone 
meant  that  he  was  a  rich  man.  He  thought  over  all  the 
struggles  that  he  had  had.  He  remembered  the  sacrifices  that 
he  had  made.  He  trembled  at  the  possibilities  that  he  saw  be- 
fore him.  Then  he  knelt  in  silence  on  the  ground.  He  arose 
with  a  smile  on  his  lips.  For  the  rest  of  the  day  he  sang 
snatches  of  songs  that  he  had  learned  in  childhood. 

Exercise  94 

Indicate  by  waved  lines,  as  before  directed,  the  modifiers  of 
the  subjects  and  of  the  predicates  in  Exercise  93. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 

THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE 

Hitherto  we  have  studied  simple  and  complex  sen- 
tences and  the  various  dependent  elements  they  may 
contain.  We  have  now  to  consider  how  two  or  more 
sentences  may  be  combined  into  one.  Observe  the 
following  :— 

1.  The  leaves  are  falling. 

2.  The  rooks  are  calling. 


78  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Why  is  each  of  these  groups  of  words  a  simple 
sentence?  By  connecting  them  with  the  word  and  we 
can  combine  them  into  a  single  sentence,  as  follows  :— 

3.  The  leaves  are  falling,  and  the  rooks  are  calling. 

By  using  but  as  a  connective  we  can  in  the  same 
way  unite  simple  sentences  into  a  single  sentence,  as 
follows : — 

4.  The  rain  fell  in  torrents. 

5.  The  clouds  were  beginning  to  break. 

6.  The  rain  fell  in  torrents,  but  the  clouds  were  beginning 
to  break. 

Sentences  3  and  6,  which  are  formed  by  combining 
simple  sentences,  are  called  Compound  Sentences.  Each 
of  the  sentences  1,  2,  4,  and  5,  when  used  as  a  part 
of  a  compound  sentence,  is  called  a  Member  or  a  Clause. 
The  members  of  compound  sentences  may  be  simple 
sentences  or  complex  sentences. 

NOTE. —  We  may  regard  as  unimportant  the  question  whether  the 
sentences  united  to  form  the  compound  sentence  are  themselves  simple 
or  complex.  We  thus  avoid  the  necessity  of  using  the  awkward  term 
complex-compound  when  referring  to  compound  sentences  that  contain 
a  dependent  clause. 

The  connectives  between  the  clauses  of  compound 
sentences  are  sometimes  omitted;  as— 

7.  The  waves  dashed  higher,  the  great  vessel  staggered,  and 
one  of  the  masts  snapped  with  a  fearful  crash. 


COMPOUND    SENTENCES  79 

8.  She  could  tell  him  everything:  there  was  no  one  else  to 
whom  she  could  tell  it. 

9.  Neither  of  them  spoke :  they  stood  looking  at  each  other. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whether 
joined  by  a  connective  or  not,  are  usually  separated 
by  a  comma.  If  the  connection  is  not  very  close  a 
semicolon  or  a  colon  is  used. 

Exercise  95 

In  the  following  exercise  point  out:  (a)  the  members  of  the  com- 
pound sentences;  (b)  what  word,  if  any,  is  used  to  connect  the 
members ;  and  (c)  what  mark  of  punctuation  is  used  to  separate  the 
members.  Tell  in  every  case  whether  the  member  is  simple  or 
complex : — 

1 .  The  gray  had  not  left  the  west  yet,  and  I  could  still  see 
a  star  or  two  twinkling  there. 

2.  The  fires  were  lit,  and  the  table  was  spread. 

3.  The  square  was  filled  with  white  tents  and  gay  uni- 
forms, and  on  all  sides  was  a  noisy  conversation. 

4.  The  weather  was  fine,  and  the  sea  was  almost  smooth. 

5.  In  five  minutes  after  we  really  began  to  climb  we  gained 
the  top  of  the  hills,  but  here  we  came  to  a  stop. 

6.  The  sun  scorched  like  fire,  and  the  air  swarmed  with 
flies  and  mosquitoes. 

7.  We  were  sure  that  we  had  passed  the  more  tedious  part 
of  our  j  ourney ;  but  many  miles  still  intervened  between  us  and 
the  fort. 

8.  Not  one  of  the  little  party  hesitated,  but  their  faces 
grew  more  anxious  as  they  proceeded. 


80  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

9.  Gradually  the  darkness  increased,  and  a  driving  storm 
came  on. 

10.  The  storm  soon  drenched  every  one  to  the  skin,  but  the 
rapid  march  kept  the  men  warm. 


CHAPTER    XXXV 

CONJUNCTIONS 
COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

We  have  just  seen  that  certain  words  are  used  to 
connect  the  members  of  compound  sentences.  In  the 
following  sentences  you  will  observe  that  the  italicized 
words  connect  words  that  are  of  the  same  grammatical 
kind — nouns  with  nouns,  adjectives  with  adjectives. 

1.  Bees  and  ants  belong  to  the  insect  world. 
8.  His  speech  was  brief  but  pointed. 

3.  All  were  so  tired  that  neither  man  nor  beast  could  go  a 
rod  farther. 

In  the  first  sentence  cmd  connects  the  words  bees 
and  ants,  each  of  which  is  a  noun  used  as  the  subject 
of  the  verb  belong.  In  the  second  sentence  but  con- 
nects the  adjectives  brief  and  pointed,  both  of  which 
describe  speech.  In  the  third,  neither  and  nor  are  used 
to  connect  the  nouns  man  and  beast,  which  are  the 
subjects  of  the  verb  could  go.  We  call  all  such  con- 
necting words  Conjunctions.  Those  that  connect  words, 


CONJUNCTIONS  81 

phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal  grammatical  importance 
are  called  Coordinate  Conjunctions.1 

Some  of  the  coordinate  conjunctions  most  often  used 
are  and,  also,  but,  hence,  moreover,  or,  therefore. 

When  coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  in  pairs  they 
are  called  Correlative  Conjunctions.  For  example,  as— 
as,  both — and,  either — or,  neither — nor,  ivhether — or 
are  correlative  conjunctions. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases, 
clauses,  or  sentences. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions  are  words  used  to  connect  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  that  are  of  the  same  rank. 

SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

Connectives  are  not  all  of  the  sort  we  have  just  dis- 
cussed. Note  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  The  horse  ran  because  it  was  frightened. 

2.  It  continued  to  run  until  it  fell  exhausted. 

3.  Unless  rain  comes  soon,  the  crops  will  wither. 

Why  is  each  of  these  sentences  complex?  What  is 
the  principal  clause  of  each?  What  is  the  dependent 
clause?  How  do  you  know?  What  word  is  used  to 
connect  each  of  these  dependent  clauses  with  the  prin- 
cipal clause  of  the  sentence? 

Such  words  as  because,  until,  and  unless  are  con- 
junctions because  they  are  connectives  and  nothing  more. 
But,  unlike  coordinate  conjunctions,  they  connect  de- 
pendent or  subordinate  clauses  with  main  clauses.  They 

1  Coordinate  means  of  equal  rank. 


82  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

are  therefore  called  Subordinate  Conjunctions,  the  word 
subordinate  meaning  of  lower  rank. 

A  Subordinate  Conjunction  is  used  to  connect  a  de- 
pendent clause  with  the  main  clause  of  the  sentence. 

Among  the  subordinate  conjunctions  of  most  com- 
mon use  are  after,  although,  as,  although,  because, 
before,  except,  if,  than,  that,  though,  till,  unless,  until. 

PHRASAL  CONJUNCTIONS 

A  few  groups  of  words  are  sometimes  used  like 
conjunctions.  Such  groups  are  called  Phrasal  Conjunc- 
tions, Examples  of  these  are  as  if,  as  though,  as  well 
as,  except  that,  in  order  that,  so  that. 

Exercise  96 

Select  the  conjunctions  in  the  following1  sentences,  and  tell  what 
words  or  what  groups  of  words  they  connect:— 

1.  The  child  could  hardly  speak,  but  it  cried  for  water. 

2.  Although    rain    is    unknown    in    Peru,    parts    of    the 
country  are  irrigated  by  streams. 

3.  On  the  higher  ground  grew  a  few  bushes,  while  the 
face  of  the  rock  in  places  was  covered  by  hanging  vines. 

4.  The  coast  curved  a  little  oceanward,  so  that  an  ex- 
tended view  could  be  had. 

5.  The  farmers  must  cut  their  hay  this  week  or  it  will  be 
spoiled. 

6.  Neither  this  nor  that  has  anything  to  do  with  the  case. 

7.  If  the  brushwood  and  dry  leaves  were  cleared  away,  the 
fires  would  not  spread  so  rapidly. 


CONJUNCTIONS  83 

8.  At  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low, 
All  bloodless  lay  the  untrodden  snow. 

9.  We  must  require  either  a  cash  payment  or  a  note  with 
good  security. 

10.  Both  in  his  words  and  in  his  actions  he  showed  guilt. 

11.  In  a  day  or  two  we  shall  know  whether  our  money  is 
lost  or  whether  our  fortunes  are  made. 

12.  To  think  that  we  could  have  been  so  deceived ! 

13.  We  must  wait  until  we  can  get  another  letter. 

14.  He  knows  the  way  as  well  as  I  do. 

15.  Those  clouds  look  as  though  we  should  have  rain. 

16.  In   order   that   there   may    be   no   disturbance,   a   few 
policemen  should  be  present. 

Exercise  97 
Use  conjunctions  in  sentences  in  the  following  ways  :— 

1.  To  connect  two  nouns  used  as  subjects. 

2.  To  connect  two  nouns  used  as  objects  of  transitive  verbs. 

3.  To  connect  two  predicate  adjectives. 

4.  To  connect  two  simple  sentences. 

5.  To  connect  a  dependent  clause  with  the  principal  clause 
of  a  complex  sentence. 

Exercise  98 
In  Exercises  83  and  84  find  the  conjunctions. 

Exercise  99 

Write  a  paragraph  of  at  least  a  hundred  words  on  the  topic, 
What  I  See  From  My  Window.1  When  you  have  finished  make  a 
list  of  all  the  conjunctions  in  your  paragraph. 

1  The  teacher  will  at  discretion  suggest  a  substitute  topic. 


84  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


CHAPTER    XXXVI 

SIMPLE    SENTENCE   WITH    COMPOUND    ELEMENTS 

As  has  been  explained,  a  simple  sentence  has  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate,  and  a  compound  sen- 
tence consists  of  two  members,  either  of  which  may 
be  a  simple  or  a  complex  sentence.  But  there  are 
some  simple  sentences  that  may  have  more  than  one 
subject  for  the  same  predicate;  while  there  are  others 
that  may  have  more  than  one  predicate  for  the  same  subject. 

Note  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Daisies  and  buttercups  were  in  bloom. 

2.  All  the  groves  and  woods  were  lightly  touched  with  new 
foliage. 

3.  The  captain  sat  and  stared. 

4.  The  raging  flood  roared  and  surged  outside. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  single  predicate  were  has 
two  subjects,  which  are  daisies  and  buttercups.  It  is 
therefore  a  Simple  Sentence  with  a  Compound  Subject. 
What  are  the  two  subjects  in  the  second  sentence,  and 
what  is  their  predicate!  What  kind  of  sentence,  then, 
have  you!  In  the  third  sentence  there  are  two  predi- 
cates for  the  same  subject.  We  therefore  call  it  a 
Simple  Sentence  with  a  Compound  Predicate.  How  many 
subjects  in  the  fourth  sentence!  How  many  predi- 
cates! What  kind  of  sentence  is  it! 


EXERCISES    ON    SENTENCES  85 

Exercise  100 

Tell  which  of  the  following-  sentences  are  simple,  which  are 
compound,  which  are  simple  sentences  with  compound  subjects, 
and  which  are  simple  sentences  with  compound  predicates: — 

1.  The  trill  of  the  sparrow  and  the  note  of  the  meadow  lark 
came  up  from  the  field. 

2.  The  farmer  walked  up  to  the  humble  bed  and  sat  down 
on  a  chair  near  it. 

3.  He  took  a  book  from  the  table,  but  his  friend  stood  si- 
lently at  the  window. 

4.  Barks,  brigs,  and  schooners  loomed  white  in  the  distance. 

5.  These  fellows  or  some  of  their  companions  had  rummaged 
through  the  camp. 

6.  The  smoke  of  the  engine  appeared  in  the  distance. 

7.  The  older  man  took  out  his  pocket-book,  extracted  a  bill, 
and  began  to  run. 

8.  One  crowd  swarmed  out  of  the  train,  and  another  stood 
waiting  on  the  platform. 

9.  The  cabmen  hurried  about  and  drove  off  rapidly. 

Exercise  101 

In  the  following  paragraph  tell  whether  the  sentences  are  sim- 
ple, complex,  or  compound.  How  is  each  dependent  clause  used? 
What  connectives  join  the  members  of  the  compound  sentences, 
and  what  marks  of  punctuation  separate  them  I 

With  the  first  flush  of  dawn  in  the  east  the  bell-ringers  began. 
The  great  tower  trembled  as  the  bells  swung  to  and  fro. 
People  in  the  street  stopped  and  listened.  They  knew  that 
good  news  had  come.  Banners  were  hung  out  from  the  towers 
and  windows.  As  the  morning  advanced,  processions  were 


86  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

formed  in  several  parts  of  the  city,  and  men  and  boys  and  even 
women,  in  fantastic  costume,  marched  through  the  streets  with 
drums  and  trumpets  and  flags  for  hours  together.  At  midday 
a  great  feast  was  spread  in  the  principal  squares,  and  the  whole 
population  united  in  rejoicing  that  peace  was  proclaimed.  In 
the  evening  all  the  windows  were  ablaze  throughout  the  city. 
Fireworks  were  seen  everywhere. 

CHAPTER    XXXVII 

WORDS  USED  AS  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

You  have  now  studied  in  brief  outline  the  various 
ways  in  which  sentences  are  made  and  used.  You 
have  also  studied  every  part  of  speech,  and  should  be 
prepared  to  recognize  each  wherever  it  occurs.  But 
some  care  is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  error.  When, 
for  example,  we  say,  "Our  friends  sail  this  afternoon," 
the  word  sail  is  used  as  a  verb.  But  when  we  say, 
"The  crew  unfurled  the  sail  to  the  breeze,"  sail  is  used 
as  a  noun.  Explain  the  different  uses  of  the  word  in 
the  two  sentences. 

As  a  rule  we  cannot  tell  what  grammatical  name  to 
apply  to  a  word  until  we  find  it  associated  with  other 
words  in  a  sentence  and  see  in  what  way  it  is  used. 
The  use  of  words  in  sentences  is  what  chiefly  concerns 
us  in  the  study  of  modern  English  grammar. 

Exercise  102 

Explain  whether  the  words  in  italics  in  the  following  sentences 
are  used  as  nouns  or  verbs :— 


SUMMARY  OF    DEFINITIONS  87 

1.  The  masons  work  rapidly. 

£.  They  will  soon  finish  the  work. 

3.  He  offered  his  right  hand. 

4.  Did  he  hand  you  the  book? 

5.  The  men  rush  down  the  street. 

6.  The  wind  and  the  rain  came  with  a  great  rush. 

7.  In  vacation  we  get  a  good  rest. 

8.  We  rest  a  little  every  day. 

Exercise  103 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  in  two  sentences,  making  it  an 
adjective  in  the  first  sentence  and  a  verb  in  the  second:— 

Last,  welcome,  open,  free,  content,  wet,  cool,  dull,  steady, 
warm,  dry,  clean,  idle. 

Exercise  104 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  in  two  sentences,  making  it  a 
noun  in  the  first  sentence  and  a  verb  in  the  second:— 

Iron,  plough,  cover,  crowd,  question,  answer,  name,  seat, 
step,  sleep,  look,  drink,  ship,  board,  play,  bat,  jump,  run, 
swing. 

NOTE. — This  work  can  be  easily  extended  by  the  teacher. 

Gathering  together  the  definitions  scattered  through 
the  preceding  pages  we  note  once  more  that— 

1.  A  word  used  as  a  name  is  a  Noun. 

2.  A  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  is  a  Pronoun. 

3.  A  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  is  an  Adjective. 


88  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

4.  A  word  used  to  make  an  assertion  is  a  Verb. 

5.  A   word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,   an 
adjective,  or  adverb  is  an  Adverb. 

6.  A  word  used  to  show  the  relation  between  a  noun  or 
pronoun  and  some  other  word  is  a  Preposition. 

•7.  A  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases,  clauses,  or 
sentences  is  a  Conjunction. 

8.  A  word  used  to  express  strong  feeling  is  an  Inter- 
jection. 

Applying  these  definitions,  let  us  determine  what 
part  of  speech  every  word  in  the  following  sentence 
may  be  called:— 

633  161  1  4  575 

In  his  early  years  at  school  Robert  worked  well,  but  now, 

825  4  3        ^1 

alas !  he  sadly  wastes  his  time. 

In  and  at  are  prepositions  because  they  show  the 
relation  between  certain  words.  In  shows  the  relation 
between  years  and  worked;  at  shows  the  relation  be- 
tween school  and  years.  His,  early,  and  his  are  ad- 
jectives (see  page  127)  because  they  modify  nouns. 
The  first  his  modifies  years,  early  modifies  years,  and 
the  second  his  modifies  time.  Years,  Robert,  and  time 
are  nouns  because  they  are  names.  Worked  and  wastes 
are  verbs  because  they  make  assertions.  Worked  makes 
an  assertion  about  its  subject  Robert  and  wastes  makes 
an  assertion  about  its  subject  he.  Well,  now,  and  sadly 
are  adverbs  because  they  modify  verbs.  But  is  a  con- 
junction because  it  connects  the  two  members  of  the 
compound  sentence.  Alas  is  an  interjection  because  it 
expresses  strong  feeling. 


DESIGNATION    OF    PARTS    OF    SPEECH       89 

NOTE. — Much  time  will  be  saved  by  requiring  pupils  in  their  written 
work  to  designate  the  parts  of  speech  by  figures  as  is  indicated  in  the 
model  sentence.  That  is, — the  noun  is  indicated  by  1;  the  pronoun, 
by  % ;  the  adjective,  by  3 ;  the  verb,  by  4;  the  adverb,  by  5;  the  prepo- 
sition, by  6;  the  conjunction,  by  7;  and  the  interjection,  by  8. 

Exercise  105 

In  the  same  way  indicate  the  use  of  every  word  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences: — 

The  wind  came  up  suddenly  and  in  a  moment  struck  the  little 
craft.  Flecks  of  foam  blew  into  our  faces.  We  could  hardly 
see  the  lighthouse.  A  second  squall  was  evidently  working  its 
way  up  the  lake.  In  three  minutes  it  was  upon  us.  For  a  time 
we  did  not  try  to  keep  our  course.  All  of  us  except  the  steers- 
man were  bailing  out  the  water.  Five  minutes  more  passed. 
We  looked  about.  The  wind  had  again  died  down.  We  were 
safe.  But  oh !  what  a  tossing  we  had  for  five  minutes ! 

Exercise  106 
Select  and  explain  the  parts  of  speech  as  in  Exercise  105. 

"  My  story  is  not  a  very  long  one,"  said  the  tramp.  "  I 
have  not  always  been  a  tramp.  Years  ago  I  was  well  dressed. 
I  had  money  in  my  pocket.  I  had  saved  several  hundred  dol- 
lars. Naturally  enough  I  wanted  to  see  something  of  the  world. 
I  had  been  a  foreman  in  the  factory.  My  friends  thought  I 
could  do  anything.  I  was,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  jack-of -all-trades. 
For  some  reason  I  decided  to  go  to  Australia.  The  season  was 
winter  when  I  started,  but  it  was  summer  when  I  arrived.  For 
a  time  I  was  clerk  in  a  large  office. 

"But  money  was  scarce.     The  crops  were  bad.    The  fields 


90  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

were  bare  in  many  places.  Soon  I  had  no  position.  Then  I 
became  a  miner,  but  I  was  not  very  successful.  I  was  for  a 
time  a  sheep-farmer,  but  the  climate  was  so  hot  that  I  could 
count  on  nothing.  Then  I  decided  to  return  to  America.  I 
worked  as  a  stoker  on  the  steamer.  I  have  been  a  brakeman  on 
a  freight- train.  I  have  been  a  cowboy,  and  now  I  am  only  a 
tramp.  My  life  is  hard  enough  in  winter,  but  in  summer  it  is 
not  unpleasant.  Do  you  object  to  lending  me  a  dime?  " 

CHAPTER    XXXVIII 

ORAL  AND    GRAPHIC  ANALYSIS 

You  have  learned  that  a  complete  thought  expressed 
in  words  is  a  sentence;  that  a  sentence  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  called  the  complete  subject  and  the 
complete  predicate;  that  the  complete  subject  may  be 
separated  into  the  simple  subject  and  its  modifiers; 
and  that  the  complete  predicate  may  be  separated  into 
the  simple  predicate,  its  modifiers,  and,  in  case  of 
verbs  of  incomplete  meaning,  the  complements  and 
their  modifiers. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  more  in  detail  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sen- 
tences. When  you  name  the  parts  of  a  sentence  and 
explain  their  relations  you  analyze  the  sentence. 

In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence  you  necessarily  an- 
swer the  following  questions:— 

1.  What  is  the  complete  subject  and  what  is  the 
complete  predicate? 


ORAL    AND    GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS  91 

2.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  complete  subject? 

3.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  complete  predicate? 

We  will  now  analyze  the  following  simple  sen- 
tences : — 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES 

Example  1 

A  flood  of  yellow  light  streamed  from  the  open  door. 
Making  an  oral  analysis  we  find— 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  A  -flood  of  yellow  light, 
and  the  complete  predicate  is  streamed  from  the  open 
door. 

3.  The  complete  subject  consists  of  the  noun  flood, 
the  adjective  Ay  and  the  adjective  phrase  of  yellow 
light  modifying  flood. 

4.  The    complete    predicate    consists    of    the    verb 
streamed   and   the   adverbial  phrase   from   the   open 
light  modifying  flood. 

GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS 

A  flood  of  yellow  light  streamed  from  the  open  door. 
"sT  B.  "pT^ 

Explanation  of  Symbols 

The  single  straight  line  under  flood  indicates  that 
flood  is  the  simple  subject.  The  two  straight  lines 
under  streamed  indicate  that  streamed  is  the  simple 
predicate.  The  waved  lines  with  the  letter  s.  below 


92  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

indicate  that  A  and  of  yellow  light  are  modifiers  of 
the  subject  flood,  and  the  waved  line  with  the  letter  p. 
below  indicates  that  from  the  open  door  is  a  modifier 
of  the  predicate  streamed. 

Example  2 

The  dark,  heavy  masses  on  the  distant  hillsides  were  herds 
of  buffaloes. 

ORAL    ANALYSIS 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  The  dark,  heavy  masses 
on  the  distant  hillside;  the  complete  predicate  is  were 
herds  of  buffaloes. 

3.  The  complete  subject  consists  of  the  noun  masses 
with  the  adjectives  The,  dark,  heavy,  and  the  adjec- 
tive phrase  on  the  distant  hillside  modifying  masses. 

4.  The  complete  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  were, 
its  noun  complement  herds,  and  the  adjective  phrase 
of  buffaloes,  which  modifies  herds. 

GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS 

The  dark,  heavy  masses  on  the  distant  hillsides  were  herds 

S.  8.  S.  S.  ' " 

of  buffaloes. 

^^scT"'^ 

In  this  sentence  there  are  but  two  new  symbols: 
The  three  straight  lines  to  indicate  the  complement  of 
the  verb  (in  this  case  the  subject  complement),  and  the 
waved  line  with  sc.  to  denote  the  modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject complement. 


ORAL    AND    GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS  93 

Example  3 

A  bitter,  whirling  wind  drove  the  fine  snow  rapidly  into 
drifts. 

ORAL    ANALYSIS 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  A  bitter,  whirling  wind, 
and  the  complete  predicate  is   drove  the  fine   snow 
rapidly  into  drifts. 

3.  The  complete  subject  consists  of  the  noun  wind 
and  its  adjective  modifiers  A,  bitter,  and  whirling. 

4.  The  complete  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  drove, 
the  object  complement  snow,  with  its  modifying  adjec- 
tives the  and  fine,  and  the  adverbial  modifiers  rapidly 
and  into  drifts. 

GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS 

A    bitter,  whirling    wind    drove    the    fine    snow    rapidly 

*sT      ~~"X '      s^  ^^      *"ocT'      ^oc^"      :^EEE     '  """"pP^ 

into    drifts. 
~^£~ 

In  this  sentence  but  one  new  symbol  occurs,  the 
waved  line  with  oc.  to  indicate  the  modifiers  of  the 
object  complement  as  distinguished  from  the  subject 
complement  illustrated  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

NOTE. — The  graphic  analysis  here  suggested  is,  as  already  remarked 
in  the  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher,  an  excellent  device  for  testing  the  pu- 
pil's knowledge  of  fundamental  principles.  But  we  have  not  suggested 
any  method  of  indicating  by  symbols  various  complicated  relations  of  sec- 
ondary modifiers.  To  attempt  it  in  elaborate  diagrams  to  be  used  by 
grammar-school  pupils  is  at  best  very  questionable.  Such  modifiers  can 
be  disposed  of,  if  at  all,  by  oral  analysis. 


94  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES 

In  analyzing  complex  sentences  the  dependent  clause 
may  first  be  marked  as  a  subject,  an  object,  or  a  modi- 
fier. It  may  then  be  analyzed  separately,  to  show  the 
relation  of  the  parts. 

In  analyzing  a  complex  sentence  you  have  to  ask— 

1.  What  are  the  clauses,  and  what  is  the  relation  of 
the  dependent  clause  or  clauses  to  the  main  clause? 

2.  What  is  the  complete  subject  and  what  is  the  com- 
plete predicate! 

3.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  complete  subject? 

4.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  complete  predicate? 

5.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  dependent  clause  or 
clauses  ? 

Example  4 

The  elks  made  broad,  dusty  paths  that  stretched  across  the 
mountain-side. 

ORAL    ANALYSIS 

1.  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  independent  clause  is  The  elks  made  broad, 
dusty  paths,  and  the  dependent  clause  is  that  stretched 
across  the  mountain-side.    The  dependent  clause  modi- 
fies the  noun  paths. 

3.  The  complete  subject  is  The  elks  and  the  complete 
predicate  is  made  broad,  dusty  paths  that  stretched 
across  the  mountain-side. 

4.  The  complete  subject  consists  of  the  noun  elks 
modified  by  the  adjective  The. 


ORAL  AND  GRAPHIC  ANALYSIS      95 

5.  The   complete   predicate   consists   of  the   simple 
predicate  made,  the  modifying  adverbial  phrase  across 
the  mountain-side,  the  complement  paths,  modified  by 
the  adjectives  broad  and  dusty  and  the  adjective  clause 
that  stretched  across  the  mountain-side. 

6.  The   complete   subject   of  the   dependent   clause 
is    that,   unmodified,    and   the   complete   predicate   is 
stretched    across    the    mountain-side.      The    complete 
predicate  is  the  simple  predicate  stretched  modified 
by   the    adverbial   phrase    across    the   mountain-side. 
The  two  clauses  are  connected  by  that. 

GRAPHIC    ANALYSIS 


The     elks     made     broad,     dusty     paths     that     stretched 

s.  oc.  oc.  .  oc. 

across    the    mountain-side. 

oc. 

The  dependent  clause  takes  two  sets  of  markings. 
The  marks  below  indicate  the  relation  of  the  clause  to 
the  sentence  as  a  whole,  while  those  above  indicate  the 
relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other. 

In  the  analysis  of  compound  subjects  each  subject  should  be 
disposed  of  separately.  The  same  is  true  of  compound  predicates. 

COMPOUND    SENTENCES 

In  analyzing  a  compound  sentence  first  separate  it 
into  its  members  and  then  treat  each  member  like  a 
simple  or  a  complex  sentence. 

NOTE. — In  the  graphic  analysis  no  account  is  taken  of  connectives  and 
independent  elements. 


96  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

SECONDARY    MODIFIERS 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  noted  the  two  kinds  of  modi- 
fiers, adjectives  and  adverbs.  But  modifiers  them- 
selves may  be  modified  by  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 
Such  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  are  called 
Secondary  Modifiers.  Illustrations  of  these  occur  in  the 
following  sentences:— 

1.  A  very  large  tree  stands  near  the  house  where  Uncle 
Robert  lives. 

2.  What  is  the  last  word  in  the  first  line  on  this  page? 

In  the  first  sentence  large  is  an  adjective  modifying 
tree  and  near  the  house  is  an  adverbial  phrase  modi- 
fying stands.  But  the  adverb  v ery,  which  modifies 
large,  and  the  clause  where  Uncle  Robert  lives,  which 
modifies  house,  are  secondary  modifiers. 

Why  is  on  this  page,  in  the  second  example,  a  sec- 
ondary modifier? 

CHAPTER    XXXIX 

FOR    REVIEW,    FOR   ANALYSIS,  AND    FOR   THE  SELECTION    OF 
PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

Exercise  107,  for  Review 
Write  a  sentence  to  illustrate  each  of  the  following  :— 

A  noun  used  independently  by  direct  address ;  an  interjec- 
tion; an  adjective  phrase;  an  adjective  clause;  an  adverbial 
phrase;  an  adverbial  clause;  a  noun-clause;  a  conjunction. 


EXERCISES    FOR    ANALYSIS  97 

Exercise  108 

Write  flve  simple  sentences  and  flye  compound  sentences.    Ex- 
plain the  difference  between  a  complex  and  a  compound  sentence. 

Exercise  109 

In  Exercise  2  (p.  3)  name  the  parts  of  speech  and  analyze  the 
sentences. 

Exercise  110 
Name  the  parts  of  speech  and  analyze  the  sentences. 

1.  The  hunter  discharged  his  gun. 

2.  The  fishermen  drew  their  nets  to  shore. 

3.  Our  dog  chased  a  fox  over  the  hills. 

4.  Agents  send  me  books  every  day. 

5.  When  you  post  a  letter  be  careful  to  seal  it. 

6.  The  player  struck  the  ball  and  drove  it  over  the  fence. 

7.  Gordon  pitched  the  ball  into  the  air  and  watched  it  as 
it  fell. 

Exercise  111 
Name  the  parts  of  speech  and  analyze  the  sentences. 

'1.  I  made  my  way  cautiously  through  the  woods. 
2.  Suddenly  a  white  wolf  jumped  up  from  among  some 
bushes. 
3.  Then  I  heard  a  rustling  sound  at  a  little  distance. 
4.  Moving  above  the  tall  bushes  were  the  branching  antlers 
of  an  elk. 
5.  I  was  in  the  midst  of  a  hunter's  paradise. 


98  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  112 
Name  the  parts  of  speech  and  analyze  the  sentences. 

1 .  This  afternoon  I  took  the  train  shortly  after  three  o'clock. 

2.  On   the  platform   of  the  station   stood  a  company  of 
Swedes. 

3.  Several  women  were  weeping  bitterly. 

4.  A  few  seats  ahead  of  me  in  the  car  sat  a  young  man 
who  was  on  his  way  back  to  Sweden. 

5.  His  eyes  were  dry,  and  he  did  not  lose  his  self-control. 

6.  Presently  the  train  started. 

7.  He  paid  no  attention  to  the  weeping  of  the  women,  and 
waved  a  smiling  farewell. 

8.  A  moment  later  we  left  the  station  far  behind  us. 

Exercise  113 
Name  the  parts  of  speech  and  analyze  the  sentences. 

No  sign  of  danger  appeared  as  the  party  entered  the  woods. 
For  an  hour  they  struggled  along  through  the  dense  under- 
brush. They  were  now  within  a  mile  of  the  camp.  Once  or 
twice  they  thought  that  they  heard  faint  cries.  But  the  roar 
of  the  waterfall  that  they  were  approaching  drowned  every 
other  sound.  About  noon  they  sat  down  upon  the  ground 
for  a  scanty  meal.  They  had  scarcely  begun  when  they  saw 
one  of  the  men  from  the  camp  running  toward  them.  He 
motioned  to  them  that  they  were  to  utter  no  sound,  and  pointed 
in  the  direction  of  the  camp.  His  clothing  was  torn,  and  he 
was  evidently  wounded. 


PART  II 


INTRODUCTION 

You  have  now  finished  Part  I,  and  before  taking 
up  Part  II  you  will  do  well  to  think  for  a  moment  of 
the  ground  you  have  already  covered.  In  brief  sum- 
mary, the  most  important  facts  are  the  following :  Sen- 
tences, according  to  the  way  they  are  used,  may  be 
divided  into  four  kinds, — Declarative,  Interrogative, 
Imperative,  Exclamatory. 

The  two  main  parts  into  which  a  sentence  may  be 
divided  are  the  Complete  Subject  and  the  Complete 
Predicate.  The  complete  subject  consists  of  the  sim- 
ple subject  and  its  modifiers,  if  it  has  any,  and  the 
complete  predicate  consists  of  the  simple  predicate 
with  its  modifiers,  if  it  has  any,  its  complements,  and 
the  modifiers  of  the  complements.  The  simple  subject 
is  commonly  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  but  sometimes  it  is 
a  phrase  or  a  clause  used  like  a  noun.  The  simple 
predicate  is  a  verb  or  a  verb-phrase.  If  the  simple 
predicate  is  a  verb  of  incomplete  meaning,  it  must  have 
a  complement. 

The  modifiers  of  the  simple  subject  may  be  an 
adjective,  a  noun  indicating  possession,  an  appositive, 

99 


100  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

or  a  group  of  words  used  like  an  adjective.  The  modi- 
fiers of  the  simple  predicate  may  be  an  adverb  or  a 
group  of  words  used  like  an  adverb. 

But,  besides  simple  subjects,  simple  predicates,  com- 
plements, and  modifiers,  there  are  words  used  to  con- 
nect other  words  and  show  the  relation  between  them. 
Such  words  are  called  Prepositions.  There  are  also 
words  used  to  connect  words  and  groups  of  words 
without  showing  the  relation  between  them.  Such 
words  are  called  Conjunctions. 

Sentences  have  also  independent  elements,  such  as 
Interjections  and  Nouns  Used  Independently  by  Direct 
Address.1 

By  breaking  up  a  sentence  into  its  component  ele- 
ments we  have  found  that  words  are  divided,  according 
to  their  grammatical  use,  into  eight  parts  of  speech,— 
Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepo- 
sitions, Conjunctions,  and  Interjections.  The  Article 
may  be  classed  as  an  adjective. 

1  Other  independent  elements  are  considered  later  (pp.  119,  248). 


CHAPTER    XL 

THE    SENTENCE 

Before  reaching  the  chapter  in  which  we  considered 
the  parts  of  speech  we  studied  sentences  according  to 
their  /orm,  as  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound.  We 
are  now  ready  to  study  more  fully  the  various  kinds 
of  sentences,  as  to  their  use  and  form,  together  with 
the  various  parts  of  speech,  their  subdivisions  and 
properties. 

Exercise  114,  for  Review 

Tell  what  kinds  of  sentences  the  following  are;  select  all  the 
compound  subjects  and  predicates;  and  tell  what  part  of  speech 
every  dependent  clause  and  phrase  represents: — 

1.  When  you  are  lost  in  the  woods,  follow  the  line  of  least 
resistance. 

2.  The  man  pulled  the  broad  brim  of  a  gray  hat  over  his 
eyes,  but  he  could  not  hide  his  face. 

3.  A  light  breeze  now  and  then  wrinkled  the  blue  water. 

4.  The  fresh  breeze,  the  dewy  road,  and  the  pleasant  sum- 
mer dawn  revived  his  spirits. 

5.  We  planned  an  excursion  to  Sandpeep  Island. 

6.  Another  guard  of  soldiers,  in  double  rank,  brought  up 
the  rear. 

7.  When  the  roll  of  the  drum  was  heard,  the  advancing 

line  stood  still. 

101 


102  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

8.  His  voice  stirred  their  souls. 

9.  Did  you  hear  a  rustling  of  the  leaves? 

10.  He  had  been  rowing  his  boat  across  the  lake. 

11.  I  turned  and  faced  Captain  Nutter. 

12.  How  proud  he  was  of  his  company ! 

Exercise  115 
Analyze  the  sentences  in  Exercise  114. 

Exercise  116,  for  Review 

By  introducing  a  relative  clause  to  modify  each  subject,  make 
the  following  simple  sentences  complex: — 

1.  A  horse drew  the  heavy  cart. 

2.  The  driver sat  unsteadily. 

3.  Some  flower-pots fell  to  the  ground. 

4.  The  crash aroused  the  old  man. 

5.  A  bird  -          -  on  the  roof  flew  away. 

6.  Two  dogs in  the  road  sniffed  suspiciously  at  the 

broken  flower-pots. 

7.  A  boy picked  up  a  broken  flower. 

8.  Just  at  that  moment  a  handsome,  portly  man  

rounded  the  corner  of  the  street. 

9.  The  bystanders  -    grew  interested  at  once. 

10.  A  policeman -  came  up  with  an  important  air, 

11.  At  his  approach  the  noise  -          -  quieted  rapidly. 

12.  The  inquiries  -          -  soon  brought  out  the  facts. 

13.  Five  minutes  later  the  crowd had  vanished. 

Exercise  117 
Analyze  the  sentences  in  Exercise  1. 


THE  SIMPLE  AND  THE  COMPLETE  SUBJECT  103 

Exercise  118,  for  Review 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  phrases  and  the  dependent 
clauses,  and  tell  what  part  of  speech  each  phrase  or  clause  stands 
for.  Which  sentences  are  simple,  and  why  ?  Which  are  complex, 
and  why  2 

1.  The  day  after  my  arrival  dawned  gray  and  cloudy. 

2.  The  season  was  unusually  warm. 

3.  The  rain  poured  down  steadily. 

4.  At  length  the  clock  in  the  tower  struck  seven. 

5.  The  old  man  lay  still  with  closed  eyes. 

6.  He  seemed  to  be  asleep,  though  he  was  really  awake. 

7.  His  face  wore  a  peaceful  expression. 

8.  By  and  by  the  sun  shone  out  again  in  fiery  splendor. 

9.  After  he  had  read  my  letter  the  old  man  asked  me  to 
dine  with  him  next  day. 

10.  When  I  was  announced  he  greeted  me  with  a  warm 
grasp  of  the  hand. 

11.  He  wore  the  black  gown  of  the  pensioners  of  the  Hos- 
pital of  Grey  Friars. 

12.  Candles  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  lit  up  the  room,  which 
was  the  usual  meeting-place  of  the  pensioners. 

13.  In  the  midst  of  the  confusion  he  was  quietly  reading. 

14.  His  favorite  book  was  a  history  of  India,  which  he  had 
learned  almost  by  heart. 

CHAPTER    XLI 

THE   SIMPLE   SUBJECT   AND   THE   COMPLETE   SUBJECT 

What  is  the  simple  subject  of  a  sentence!  How  do 
you  find  it?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  sim- 
ple and  the  complete  subject? 


104  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

What  is  the  simple  predicate  of  a  sentence!  How 
do  you  find  it?  What  is  the  difference  between  the 
simple  predicate  and  the  complete  predicate! 

Exercise  119,  for  Review 

Enlarge  the  following  sentences  by  adding  modifiers  to  the 
subjects  and  to  the  predicates:— 

1.  Ships  sailed.  10.  Men  shouted. 

2.  Armies  fought.  11.  Horses  ran. 

3.  Eagles  soared.  12.  Clouds  gathered. 

4.  Birds  sang.  13.  Flies  buzzed. 

5.  Flowers  bloomed.  14.  Children  laughed. 

6.  Smoke  curled.  15.  Dogs  barked. 

7.  Boys  sang.  16.  Dust  flew. 

8.  Rain  fell.  17.  Doors  opened. 

9.  Fruit  grew.  18.  Waves  dashed. 


CHAPTER    XLII 

THE   SIMPLE   PREDICATE   AND   THE   COMPLETE    PREDICATE 
Exercise  120,  for  Review 

Find  all  the  simple  and  the  complete  subjects;  also  all  the 
simple  and  the  complete  predicates. 

For  some  distance  the  road  skirted  a  deep  ravine.  Then  it 
mounted  the  hill,  and  turned  sharply  every  few  rods.  Evi- 
dently, the  tired  horses  could  not  drag  heavy  wagons  and  guns 
up  such  a  road.  The  commander  was  in  despair.  But  soon  the 
scout  hurried  back  and  reported  important  news.  At  least  a 


THE  SIMPLE  AND  THE  COMPLETE  SUBJECT  105 

hundred  abandoned  horses  and  oxen  were  grazing  some  miles 
ahead.  At  this  announcement  a  squad  of  mounted  men  dashed 
up  the  narrow  road  and  passed  out  of  sight  in  an  instant. 
The  whole  baggage-train  halted.  Officers  and  men  dismounted 
and  prepared  for  the  noonday  meal.  Before  nightfall  every 
gun  and  wagon  was  safe  in  the  camp  on  the  crest  of  the  moun- 
tain. 

Exercise  1%1 
Analyze  the  sentences  in  Exercise  118. 

CHAPTER    XLIII 

THE   NOUN1 
Exercise  122 

Select  and  arrange  in  columns  all  the  proper  nouns  and  the  com- 
mon nouns  in  the  following  list  of  words,  and  beside  each  proper 
noun  place  a  common  noun  corresponding  to  it  in  meaning:— 

John,  Ann,  queen,  woman,  river,  Germany,  mountain,  sea, 
California,  city,  town,  boy,  man,  street,  lake,  country,  Asia, 
Charles  Dickens,  Chicago,  author,  poet,  novelist,  Ivanhoe, 
Sheridan,  Vesuvius,  Africa,  Albany,  Cuba,  volcano,  Christmas, 
continent,  general,  island,  holiday,  capital,  Victoria,  Missis- 
sippi, Mediterranean,  State,  Broadway,  Erie. 

THE  ABSTRACT  NOUN 

Two  special  kinds  of  common  nouns,  abstract  and 
collective  nouns,  are  of  frequent  use.  Abstract  nouns 

1  Review  Chapter  V. 


106  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

do  not  name  objects,  but  they  name  qualities,  actions, 
or  conditions.  For  example,  when  a  stone  is  rough 
we  say  it  has  the  quality  of  roughness ;  when  a  horse 
runs  it  performs  the  act  of  running;  when  there  is  a 
fog  there  is  a  state  or  condition  of  fogginess. 

In  these  cases  the  words  roughness,  running,  foggi- 
ness are  common  nouns  in  the  sense  of  being  general 
or  class  names,  yet  they  differ  from  other  common 
nouns  in  naming  not  a  concrete  object,  but  some  quality, 
some  action,  or  some  condition.  When  qualities,  actions, 
or  conditions  are  separated  or  abstracted  from  the  ob- 
jects or  things  with  which  they  are  associated,  the 
names  of  such  qualities,  actions,  and  conditions  are 
called  Abstract  Nouns. 

An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  an  action, 
or  a  condition. 

Many  abstract  nouns,  expressing  quality,  are  formed 
from  adjectives.  For  example,  from  good  we  form 
goodness;  from  great,  greatness;  from  strong,  strength; 
from  free,  freedom;  from  high,  height;  from  wise, 
wisdom;  from  prudent,  prudence. 

NOTE. — The  help  of  the  teacher  will  be  needed  here  in  de- 
fining and  illustrating  the  difference  between  concrete  and 
abstract  conceptions.  Of  especial  importance  is  it  to  point  out 
the  close  connection  between  the  quality  expressed  by  an  adjec- 
tive and  the  quality  expressed  by  an  abstract  noun;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, "  The  carpet  has  a  rich  color/'  "  The  carpet  has  richness 
of  color/'  "  The  color  of  the  carpet  is  rich." 


ABSTRACT    NOUNS  107 

Exercise  123 

What  names  of  qualities  can  you  form  from  the  following 
adjectives  2 

Bright,  clear,  keen,  cheerful,  damp,  dark,  cruel,  rough,  soft, 
hard,  late,  brisk,  slow,  cool,  warm,  hot,  true,  false,  swift,  slow. 

Exercise  1®4 

What  quality  can  you  name  as  belonging  to  each  of  the  follow- 
ing objects? 

Mountain,  rock,  snow,  river,  torrent,  prairie,  swamp,  desert, 
valley,  melon,  diamond,  steel,  coal,  glass,  leather,  milk,  lemon, 
sugar,  grass,  razor,  sun,  ice,  orange. 

Exercise  125 

Many  abstract  nouns  expressing  action  are  formed  from  verbs. 
What  names  of  actions  can  you  form  from  the  following  verbs  2 

Leap,  throw,  walk,  run,  ride,  read,  write,  talk,  wink,  climb, 
jump,  swing,  thump,  think,  paint,  build,  dig,  call,  sing. 

Exercise  126 
Select  the  abstract  nouns  from  the  following  paragraph:— 

The  rain  still  fell,  and  a  chilly  dampness  was  in  the  air. 
The  clouds  had  no  motion,  but  they  hung  at  a  great  height  and 
presented  surfaces  of  dense  blackness.  Presently  a  small  boat 
hove  in  sight,  steered  by  a  man  of  uncertain  age.  His  dress 
was  shabby,  but  the  sternness  of  his  expression  showed  that  he 
was  used  to  being  obeyed.  The  oarsmen  handled  the  boat  with 
much  skill,  and  in  spite  of  the  roughness  of  the  waves  easily 
made  a  landing.  Without  hesitation  the  skipper — for  the 
steersman  was  evidently  in  command  of  the  vessel  anchored  in 


108  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

the  bay — made  his  way  up  the  hill  to  where  the  smugglers  were 
sitting  in  silence  about  the  fire.  The  whole  scene  had  an  air 
of  strangeness  about  it  that  I  still  remember.  The  richness  of 
the  men's  weapons  contrasted  strongly  with  the  poverty  of 
their  surroundings.  The  vigilance  of  the  three  watchers  on 
the  cliff  made  possible  the  easy  carelessness  of  the  rest  of  the 
company. 

THE  COLLECTIVE  NOUN 

Besides  the  abstract  noun,  there  is  another  special 
kind  of  common  noun,  denoting  a  group  or  collection 
of  persons  or  objects  of  the  same  kind.  For  example, 
we  call  a  collection  of  birds  a  -flock;  a  collection  of 
soldiers  a  company;  a  collection  of  cattle  a  herd;  a 
collection  of  bees  a  swarm;  and  a  collection  of  trees 
a  grove. 

Exercise  127 

What  objects  or  persons  may  be  included  under  each  of  the 
following  collective  nouns? 

School,  jury,  staff,  court,  trades-union,  congregation,  as- 
sembly, crowd,  tribe,  squad,  crew,  party,  shoal,  regiment, 
troop,  fleet,  cluster,  bunch,  pack,  drove,  committee,  board, 
orchestra,  family,  brotherhood,  menagerie,  army. 

NOTE. — In  preparing  this  and  similar  exercises  pupils  should  make 
free  use  of  a  good  dictionary. 

Exercise  128 

What  noun  in  the  singular  may  denote  a  group  or  collection 
of  the  following  persons  or  objects  2 

Cars,  sheep,  trees,  neighbors,  members,  dogs,  ships,  soldiers, 
sailors,  directors,  keys,  chickens,  apples,  grapes,  Indians. 


THE    PLURAL    OF    NOUNS  109 

A  Collective  Noun  is  one  that  names  a  group  or  collec- 
tion of  objects  of  the  same  kind. 

Although  a  collective  noun  is  usually  a  common 
noun,  it  may  become  a  proper  noun  if  it  names  a  par- 
ticular object;  as,  The  Second  Regiment,  Company  K, 
Congress. 

GHAPTER    XLIV 

NUMBER    OF    NOUNS 
THE  USUAL  METHOD  OF  FORMING  THE  PLFRAL  OF  NOUNS 

Nouns  name  either  one  object  or  more  than  one,  but 
they  are  not  all  exactly  alike  in  the  way  they  indicate 
the  change  in  the  number.  The  most  common  method 

illustrated  by  the  following  examples:— 

boy       ruler      book 
boys     rulers     books 

Here  we  see  that  the  form  of  the  noun  is  changed  to 
indicate  a  change  in  the  number  of  objects  that  are 
leant.    A  noun  that  denotes  but  one  object  is  said  to 
in  the  Singular  Number;   a  noun  that  denotes  more 
tan  one  object  is  said  to  be  in  the  Plural  Number. 

Most  nouns  form  their  plural  by  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

But  to  the  general  rule  just  stated  there  are  many 
exceptions.  For  example,  how  is  the  plural  formed 
in  the  following  nouns:  Fox,  box,  wish,  dish,  loss, 
Church,  crutch,  lunch?  If  we  should  add  only  the 
itter  s  to  the  singular  of  each  of  these  words  we 


110  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

should  get  a  sound  hard  to  pronounce.    We  add,  there- 
fore, es.    Hence  the  rule:— 

Nouns  ending  in  s,  x,  z,  eh,  and  sh  form  their  plurals  by 
adding  es  to  the  singular. 

Exercise  129 

Write  the  plural  form  of  as  many  nouns  as  you  can  find  ending 
in  s,  x,  z,  ch,  and  ,s/i. 

THE  PLURAL  OF  WORDS  ENDING  IN  Y 
Note  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  ending  in  y: — 

fly      flies  lady       ladies  cry    cries  body    bodies 

key    keys  story     stories  city  cities          pony    ponies 

toy    toys  valley    valleys  boy   boys  baby    babies 

Which  of  these  words  change  y  to  i  and  add  es?  In 
these  cases  is  y  preceded  by  a  consonant1  or  a  vowel? 
Which  of  the  words  simply  add  s  to  the  singular?  In 
these  cases  is  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  or  a  vowel! 

Exercise  130 

Form  the  plural  of  five  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a 
Towel  5  of  five  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant.  Make 
a  rule  for  the  formation  of  the  plural  of  words  ending  in  y. 

THE  PLURAL  OF  WORDS  ENDING  IN  0 

Words  ending  in  o  most  commonly  form  their  plu- 
rals by  adding  es  to  the  singular,  but  there  are  many 
exceptions. 

1  The  alphabet  is  made  up  of  vowels  and  consonants.  The  vowels  are 
o,  e,  i,  o,  w,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 


IRREGULAR    PLURALS  111 

THE  PLURAL  OF  WORDS  ENDING  IN  F  on  FE 

A  small  number  of  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  change 
f  to  v  and  add  es  or  s.  These  include  the  following 
common  words:  Beef,  calf,  half,  knife,  leaf,  life,  loaf, 
self,  shelf,  thief,  wharf,  wife,  wolf.  Write  the  plural 
of  these  words. 

Exercise  131 

Form  the  plural  of  flye  words  ending  in  o.  Use  in  sentences 
the  plural  of  fire  words  ending  in  f  or  fe. 

IRREGULAR  PLURALS 

A  few  survivals  of  old  ways  of  forming  the  plural 
have  come  down  to  us.  The  plural  of  child  is  children, 
of  ox,  oxen.  The  plural  of  brother  is  brothers  or 
brethren,  with  some  difference  in  the  meaning.  The 
following  add  no  ending  but  modify  the  vowel  of  the 
singular  :— 

foot  goose  man  mouse  tooth  woman 

feet  geese  men  mice  teeth  women 

The  plural  of  letters,  figures,  and  other  symbols  is 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s) ;  as,  "How 
many  n's  in  Tennessee?"  "There  are  eleven  9's  in 
ninety-nine." 

The  plural  of  proper  nouns  preceded  by  titles  is 
formed  in  two  ways.  For  the  singular  forms,  "Mr. 
Brown,"  "Dr.  Brown,"  and  "Miss  Brown,"  we  may 
write  "the  Mr.  Browns"  or  "the  Messrs.  Brown,"  "the 
Dr.  Browns"  or  "the  Drs.  Brown,"  "the  Miss  Browns" 
or  "the  Misses  Brown."  Since  there  is  no  plural  form 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

for  the  abbreviation  Mrs.  we  must  write  "the  Mrs. 
Browns"  as  the  plural  for  "Mrs.  Brown." 

Some  compound  words  form  the  plural  by  changing 
only  the  most  important  part  of  the  word.  Thus,  son- 
in-law  becomes  in  the  plural  sons-in-law,  father-in-law  f 
fathers-in-law,  and  court-martial,  courts-martial.  But 
sometimes  the  sign  of  the  plural  is  added  at  the  end 
of  the  entire  word;  as,  spoonfuls.  Some  compound 
words  make  a  change  in  both  elements.  The  plural  of 
Knight  Templar  is  Knights  Templars,  and  the  plural 
of  man-servant  and  woman-servant,  men-servants  and 
women-servants;  but  s  alone  is  added  to  form  the 
plural  of  Brahman,  German,  Mussulman,  Ottoman,  and 
talisman. 

The  last  syllable  of  these  words  does  not  mean  man  (a  human 
being).  Norman,  however,  a  shortened  form  of  Northman,  has  the 
plural  Normans,  and  is  an  exception. 

A  few  nouns  have  two  plural  forms,  with  different 
meanings;  as— 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

brother  brothers  (of  a  family)  brethren  (of  a  society) 

cloth  cloths  (separate  pieces)  clothes  (garments) 

die  dies  (for  stamping)  dice  (for  playing  games) 

fish  fish  (collectively)  fishes  (singly) 

head  head  (collectively)  heads  (singly) 

penny  pence  (collectively)  pennies  (singly) 

Among  the  nouns  that  have  the  same  form  for  both 
singular  and  plural  are  deer,  she&p,  trout,  means,  odds, 


FOREIGN    PLURALS 


113 


pains,  mathematics,  politics,  and  other  words  having 
the  ending  ics.  But  words  ending  in  ics  are  commonly, 
though  not  uniformly,  regarded  as  singular. 

Some  foreign  words  retain  their  foreign  plurals,  but 
some  of  them  also  form  their  plurals  by  adding  s  or 
es  to  the  singular.  Examples  of  these  may  be  found 
in  the  following  list.  Others  will  become  familiar  to 
you  through  your  reading:— 


SINGULAR 


alumna  (feminine)  . 
alumnus  (masculine) 
analysis  .... 


bandit 


beau 


cherub 


crisis   .     . 
datum 

formula 


genius      .     .     .     . 

index 

memorandum 


PLURAL 

alumnae 

alumni 

analyses 

bandits 

banditti 
(  beaus 
|  beaux 
j  cherubs 
|  cherubim 

crises 

data 

j  formulas 
|  formulas 

{geniuses  (persons  of  remarkable  powers 
of  mind) 
genii  (spirits) 
indexes  (of  books) 
indices  (a  mathematical  term) 
memorandums 
memoranda 


114  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 


parenthesis    . 

.     .     .     parentheses 

phenomenon  . 

.     .      .     phenomena 

seraph 

I  seraphs 

(  seraphim 

stratum    .     . 

strata 

The  nature  of  some  nouns  requires  that  they  should 
be  commonly  used  only  in  the  singular ;  as,  self-control, 
temperance,  love,  hatred. 

Nouns  that  are  used  only  in  the  plural  include  ashes, 
assets,  billiards,  bitters,  clothes,  dregs,  goods,  pincers, 
proceeds,  riches,  scissors,  shears,  spectacles,  tongs, 
trousers. 

Some  nouns,  including  gallows,  measles,  news,  are 
plural  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning. 

As  we  shall  see  in  a  later  lesson  (p.  127),  personal 
pronouns,  unlike  nouns,  form  their  plurals  by  a  com- 
plete change  in  form. 

Exercise  132 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  words  and,  wherever  you  can, 
give  the  rule  for  the  formation  of  the  plural : — 

Tree,  house,  river,  glass,  bunch,  match,  lass,  rose,  calico, 
tomato,  loaf,  thief,  knife,  brother,  man,  Englishman,  French- 
man, Dutchman,  Ottoman,  German,  Norman,  father-in-law, 
mother-in-law,  forget-me-not,  mother,  cousin,  cloth,  fish,  penny, 
beau,  memorandum,  cherub,  alumnus,  phenomenon. 


INDICATION    OF    GENDER  115 

CHAPTER    XLV 

GENDER 

boy  man  king  father  lad  drake 

girl  woman       queen         mother          lass          duck 

You  will  notice  that  in  each  of  these  pairs  of  words 
the  first  noun,  as  boy,  father,  drake,  which  is  the  name 
of  a  male  person  or  animal,  is  different  from  the  second 
noun,  girl,  mother,  duck,  which  is  the  name  of  a  female 
person  or  animal.  Here  we  have  different  words  to  in- 
dicate a  difference  in  sex. 

The  distinction  of  sex  is  called  Gender. 

A  noun  used  as  the  name  of  a  male  being  is  of  the  Mas- 
culine Gender. 

A  noun  used  as  the  name  of  a  female  being  is  of  the 
Feminine  Gender. 

A  noun  used  as  the  name  of  an  object  neither  male  nor 
female  is  of  the  Neuter  Gender. 

The  word  neuter  means  neither. 

Nouns  that  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine  are 
said  to  be  of  the  Common  Gender. 

To  express  difference  of  sex  we  either  (1)  use 
different  words,  as  in  our  first  list,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing:— 

MASCULINE  FEMININE 

bachelor  maid 

buck  doe 

gander  goose 

nephew  niece 

uncle  aunt 


116  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

or  (2)  we  change  a  part  of  the  word,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

he-bear  she-bear 

he-goat  she-goat 

landlord  landlady 

man-servant  maid-servant 

or  (3)  we  add  a  termination  to  indicate  the  feminine: — 

actor  actress 

giant  giantess 

host  hostess 

lion  lioness 

patron  patroness 

priest  priestess 

prophet  prophetess 

tiger  tigress 

hero  heroine 

Sometimes  objects  without  animal  life  are  spoken 
of  as  if  they  were  persons,  having  the  power  to  think, 
and  feel,  and  perform  actions.  Such  objects  are  said 
to  be  personified,  and  may  then  be  regarded  as  having 
sex.  For  example,  we  often  refer  to  a  ship  as  she. 

Gender  is  a  matter  of  relatively  slight  importance  in  English 
grammar.  Of  the  pronouns,  only  he,  she,  it  really  agree  in  gender 
with  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand.  Who  refers  to  persons, 
but  does  not  indicate  their  gender.  Which  commonly  refers  to 
neuter  objects,  though  frequently  used  to  refer  to  the  lower 
animals.  Moreover,  except  for  the  comparatively  few  nouns  that 
denote  sex,  nouns  in  English  are  of  the  neuter  gender,  that  is  to 
say,  they  have  no  gender  at  all. 


CASE    IN    ENGLISH  117 

CHAPTER    XLVI 

CASE 

When  words  have  changes  in  form  to  denote  a  dif- 
ference in  use  or  meaning  they  are  said  to  be  inflected. 
Such  changes  occur  in  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives, 
verbs,  and  in  some  adverbs.  Some  languages,  as,  for 
example,  Latin,  make  free  use  of  inflection,  but  Eng- 
lish words  have  few  changes  of  form,  and  hence  very 
little  inflection.  But  English  words  may  have  as  many 
relations  to  other  words  in  the  sentence  as  Latin  words 
have.  One  of  these  relations  we  have  to  consider  here. 

We  have  learned  that  nouns  and  pronouns  may  be 
used  as  the  subjects  of  verbs,  as  the  direct  or  indirect 
objects  of  transitive  verbs,  and  as  the  objects  of 
prepositions.  Some  of  the  pronouns  when  used  as 
objects  take  a  form  different  from  that  proper  for  a 
subject.  We  should  not  think  of  saying — 

Him  sees  I. 
Me  sees  he. 
Them  sees  she. 
But  we  say — 

I  see  him. 
He  sees  me. 
She  sees  them. 

In  other  words,  we  have  in  these  pronouns  a  change  of 
form  corresponding  to  the  change  in  the  relation  to 
other  words  in  the  sentence.  In  some  languages,  as, 
for  example,  Latin,  nouns  commonly  change  their  end- 


118  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

ings  whenever  they  are  used  as  objects  of  verbs  or  of 
prepositions.  Many  hundred  years  ago  some  nouns 
did  this  in  English.  But  most  of  the  old  case-endings 
have  been  lost,  and  now  the  only  change  in  the  form 
of  a  noun  to  indicate  relation  to  other  words  in  a  sen- 
tence consists  in  adding  's  or  '  to  denote  ownership  or 
possession. 

If  you  put  nouns  in  place  of  the  pronouns  in  the 
sentences  above  you  see  that  you  can  use  the  same 
noun  as  a  subject  or  as  an  object  without  changing  its 
form  in  order  to  indicate  its  case.  But  nevertheless  for 
convenience  we  say  that  any  word  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb  is  in  the  Nominative  Case  and  that  any  word 
used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition  is  in  the 
Objective  Case.  Since  the  form  of  the  nominative  and 
the  objective  is  the  same,  it  is  called  the  Common  Form 
of  the  noun.  The  Possessive  Case — which  is  a  real  case, 
since  it  takes  a  case-ending — is  called  the  Possessive 
Form.  The  only  words  that  have  case  are  nouns  and 
pronouns.  The  only  words  that  indicate  their  case  by 
their  form  are  nouns  in  the  possessive  form  and  pro- 
nouns. 

CHAPTER    XLVII 

THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE1 

The  Nominative  Case  is  sometimes  called  the  subject 
case.  This  case  is  most  common,  for  every  sentence 
must  contain  a  subject,  and  every  subject  must  be  in 
the  nominative  case. 

•    *  Review  Chapters  XI,  XV,  XVIII,  and  XXVII. 


THE    NOMINATIVE    CASE  119 

But  a  noun  in  the  nominative  case  may  stand  in 
various  relations  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  It 
may  be  the  subject  of  the  verb;  it  may  be  a  predicate 
nominative;  it  may  be  used  independently  by  direct  address; 
and  it  may  be  used  in  exclamations.  The  following  are 
examples  of  these  four  uses  of  the  nominative  case: — 

1.  The  Nominative  as  Simple  Subject. 
The  young  man  had  recently  come  to  town. 

2.  The  Predicate  Nominative.    When  a  noun  in  the 
nominative  stands  after  the  copula  or  a  copulative  verb 
it  is  called  the  predicate  nominative. 

The  young  man  was  a  stranger  in  town. 

3.  The  Nominative  Independent  by  Direct  Address. 
"  Young  man,  I  have  a  word  to  say  to  you." 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  used  without  a  verb 
as  the  Nominative  in  Exclamations. 

"  Poor  fellow!  I'm  afraid  there's  no  help  for  him,"  ex- 
claimed the  Captain. 

There  is  also  the  Nominative  Absolute,  but  that  we 
shall  consider  later  (p.  248). 

Exercise  133 

Write  five  sentences  to  illustrate  the  nominative  independent 
by  direct  address,  and  five  to  illustrate  the  predicate  nominative. 
Name  the  subject  nominatiye  in  each  of  your  sentences. 


120  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  134 
Point  out  the  words  used  as  nomi natives  in  exclamations. 

1.  Strawberries!     Strawberries!  fresh  this  morning. 

2.  He!     He  has  no  head  for  business. 

3.  She!     She  a  painter!     She  can  hardly  draw. 

4.  Morning  papers!    All  the  news! 

5.  Happy  thought!    The  very  thing! 


CHAPTER    XLVIII 

THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE1 

It  has  been  explained  that  the  possessive  singular 
is  formed  by  adding  to  the  noun  the  apostrophe  and 
the  letter  s  ('s).  If  the  plural  ends  in  s  the  apostrophe 
alone  is  added,  but  if  it  does  not  end  in  s  both  the 
apostrophe  and  s  are  added,  as  in  the  singular.  It 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  apostrophe  represents 
a  sound.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  convenient  aid  to 
the  eye  in  reading. 

Exercise  135 

Write  the  possessive  singular  and  plural  of  the  following 
nouns  :— 

King,  queen,  prince,  ruler,  man,  senator,  governor,  boy, 
lady,  thief,  wife,  wolf,  brother,  child,  ox,  mouse,  woman, 
neighbor,  friend,  writer,  historian,  novelist,  poet. 

1  Review  Chapter  IX. 


THE    POSSESSIVE     CASE 

When  nouns  end  in  s  or  the  sound  of  s,  usage  is 
divided  in  the  writing  of  the  possessive.  Most  writers 
form  the  possessive  singular  of  such  nouns  according 
to  the  general  rule  by  adding  's,  but  others  add  only 
the  apostrophe.  Accordingly,  we  may  write,  "  James's 
hat"  or  " James7  hat";  " Francis's  bow"  or  "Francis' 
bow";  "Dickens's  Oliver  Twist"  or  "Dickens'  Oliver 
Twist."  Certain  phrases,  such  as,  "for  appearance' 
sake,"  "for  conscience'  sake,"  "for  goodness'  sake," 
take  only  the  apostrophe. 

In  forming  the  possessive  of  words  ending  in  s  or 
the  sound  of  s  we  can  often  make  the  sound  more 
agreeable  by  the  use  of  a  prepositional  phrase  with  of. 
In  some  cases  there  is  little  to  choose  between  the 
two  forms;  as,  for  example,  between  "Burns's  poems" 
and  "the  poems  of  Burns."  In  other  cases,  such  as 
"Xerxes's  army,"  "Confucius's  teachings,"  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  selecting  the  prepositional  phrase. 

The  prepositional  phrase  with  of  is  commonly  used 
to  express  the  possessive  case  of  names  of  objects 
without  animal  life,  which  the  best  writers  seldom  use 
in  the  possessive  form.  We  say  "the  back  of  the  chair," 
but  not  "the  chair's  back";  "the  door  of  the  house," 
but  not  "the  house's  door";  "the  handle  of  the  knife," 
but  not  "the  knife's  handle";  "the  waterworks  of  Bos- 
ton," but  not  "Boston's  waterworks." 

In  some  phrases,  however,  such  as,  "the  day's  work,"  "a 
week's  wages,"  "a  year's  absence,"  the  possessive  form  with  's 
is  used. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  136 

Write  the  possessive  singular  of  the  following  nouns.  Where 
you  think  it  preferable,  use  instead  of  the  possessive  form  the 
prepositional  phrase  with  of: — 


horse 

wall 

Xerxes 

bird 

pony 

Cuba 

hammock 

carpenter 

England 

floor 

barn 

United  States 

horseman 

rabbit 

Germany 

rock 

hen 

France 

goddess 

head 

Spain 

girl 

field 

New  Mexico 

chimney 

clock 

Paris 

fence 

band 

widow 

gate 

husband 

Kansas 

gate-keeper 

sea 

Lucius 

Compound  nouns  add  the  sign  of  the  possessive  to 
the  end  of  the  word;  as,  "commander-in-chief's"  and 
"  father-in-law's."  Where  the  noun  consists  of  two  or 
more  words,  as,  "William  of  Orange,"  "Queen  Eliza- 
beth," and  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  the  possessive  sign  is 
attached  to  the  last  word  of  the  expression;  as,  "Will- 
iam of  Orange's,"  "Queen  Elizabeth's,"  and  "Abraham 
Lincoln's."  But  in  such  cases  the  prepositional  phrase 
with  of  is  often  preferable  to  the  possessive  form. 

To  indicate  joint  ownership  the  sign  of  the  possessive 
is  used  with  the  last  of  two  or  more  connected  nouns ; 
as,  "Brown  and  Thompson's  mill";  "Smith,  White,  and 
Northam's  workshops." 


THE    POSSESSIVE    CASE 

To  indicate  separate  ownership  the  sign  of  the  posses- 
sive is  used  with  each  of  the  connected  nouns;  as, 
"Robert's  and  Frank's  watches."  This  indicates  that 
each  of  the  persons  named  possesses  a  watch. 

Nouns  that  have  the  same  form  in  the  singular  and  the  plural 
add  's  in  the  singular  and  *'  in  the  plural,  as  deer's  (singular)  and 
deers  (plural). 

Exercise  137 

Form  the  possessive  of  the  following  words.  Use  a  prepositional 
phrase  with  of  in  place  of  the  possessive  with  s  wherever  you 
think  the  phrase  is  preferable:— 

Fountain,  stars,  world,  car,  writer,  poet,  poem,  boot,  town, 
city,  reservoir,  government,  bank,  association,  community, 
painter,  judge,  Congress,  Erie  Canal,  beggar,  gentleman. 

CHAPTER    XLIX 

A    REVIEW 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  common  noun  and 
a  proper  noun?  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing 
a  common  and  a  proper  noun.  What  is  an  abstract 
noun!  Name  five  abstract  nouns.  What  is  a  collective 
noun?  Name  five  collective  nouns,  and  use  three  of 
them  in  sentences. 

Write  the  singular  and  the  plural  forms  of  ten  com- 
mon nouns.  How  do  nouns  ending  in  y  form  their 
plurals?  Nouns  ending  in  of  Nouns  ending  in  /  or 
Write  the  plural  of  the  following:  Child,  man, 
wman,  Miss  Smith,  daughter-in-law,  German,  cloth, 

ih,  crisis,  formula,  parenthesis. 


124.  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Define  gender.  Name  six  nouns  of  the  masculine 
gender,  six  of  the  feminine,  and  six  of  the  neuter. 

Name  the  three  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns.  Write 
three  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  following:  The 
nominative  as  simple  subject,  the  nominative  as  inde- 
pendent by  direct  address,  and  the  predicate  nominative. 

Write  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive 
plural  of  the  following  nouns:  Robin,  canary,  hawk, 
crow,  monkey,  elephant,  bear,  ox,  wolf,  horse. 

Name  ten  nouns  that  preferably  form  the  possessive 
by  the  use  of  a  prepositional  phrase  with  of. 

Write  three  sentences  containing  a  noun  or  pronoun 
used  (1)  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  (2)  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition,  (3)  as  indirect  object.  Write 
a  sentence  containing  a  noun  used  as  an  adverb. 


CHAPTER    L 

THE    OBJECTIVE    CASE 

You  will  remember  that  in  only  one  case,  the  pos- 
sessive, is  the  form  of  the  noun  changed  to  denote  the 
relation  of  the  noun  to  other  words.  Hence,  to  de- 
termine whether  a  noun  is  in  the  nominative  or  the 
objective  case,  we  must  see  how  it  is  used.  Our  under- 
standing of  its  use  depends,  to  some  degree,  upon  its 
position  in  the  sentence.  If  we  say,  "And  then  the 
youth  the  aged  man  addressed,"  we  are  uncertain 

1  Review  Chapters  XV,  XXII,  XXIII,  and  XXIV. 


THE    OBJECTIVE    CASE  125 

about  the  subject  and  the  object  of  the  verb  addressed. 
Did  the  youth  address  the  man  or  did  the  man  address 
the  youth?  We  cannot  tell.  If,  however,  we  say, 
"And  then  the  youth  addressed  the  aged  man,"  or 
"And  then  the  aged  man  addressed  the  youth,"  the 
position  of  the  nouns  makes  clear  which  is  the  subject 
and  which  is  the  object  of  the  verb. 

A  noun  may  be  in  the  Objective  Case  when  used  (1) 
as  the  direct  object  of  a  verb,  (2)  as  the  indirect  object  of 
a  verb,  (3)  as  the  object  of  a  preposition,  (4)  as  an  adverb, 
and  in  some  other  ways,  which  will  be  explained  later. 

Illustrations  of  these  four  uses  of  the  objective  case 
appear  in  the  following  sentences  :— 

1.  Direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 
The  old  man  dropped  the  key. 

2.  Indirect  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 
A  little  girl  handed  the  old  man  the  key. 

3.  Object  of  a  preposition. 

A  little  girl  handed  the  key  to  the  old  man. 

4.  Noun  used  as  an  adverb. 
The  old  man  waited  an  hour. 

Exercise  138 

Write  five  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  these  four  uses  of 
the  objective  case. 


126  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    LI 

PERSONAL    PRONOUNS1 

A  pronoun,  as  explained  in  Chapter  VI,  is  a  word 
used  instead  of  a  noun.  But  some  pronouns  indicate 
persons  or  things  which  have  not  been  named  by  any 
noun.  Examples  appear  in  the  following  sentences  :— 
7  came.  You  came.  He  came.  She  came.  It  came. 
The  first  word  of  each  of  these  sentences  is  not  a  noun, 
because  it  is  not  a  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing. 
But  it  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  represents  some  person 
without  mentioning  any  name. 

The  pronoun  I  is  always  in  the  First  Person,  you  is 
always  in  the  Second  Person,  and  he,  she,  and  it  are 
always  in  the  Third  Person. 

Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  and  ye  are  not  now  often 
used,  except  in  prayer  or  in  poetry.  You  was  originally 
a  plural  pronoun  only,  but  it  is  now  used  as  either  a 
singular  or  a  plural.  Its  number  in  a  given  sentence 
must  be  determined  by  the  sense. 

Pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  neces- 
sarily masculine  or  feminine,  that  is,  of  the  common 
gender.  Those  of  the  third  person  have  gender  forms 
in  the  singular,  he,  she,  it,  but  none  in  the  plural. 

DECLENSION  OF  PERSONAL,  PRONOUNS 

When  we  arrange  pronouns  according  to  their  per- 
son, number,  and  case,  we  are  said  to  decline  them. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 


127 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


First  Person 
SINGULAR 
I 

my  or  mine 
me 

Second  Person 
thou 

thy  or  thine 
thee 

Third  Person 
MASCULINE 


PLURAL 

we 

our  or  oui*s 

us 

ye  or  you 
your  or  yours 
you 


Nominative 
Possessive 

he 
his 

they 
their  or  theirs 

Objective 

him 

them 

FEMININE 

Nominative 
Possessive 

she 
her  or  hers 

they 
their  or  theirs 

Objective 

her 

them 

NEUTER 

Nominative 
Possessive 

it 
its 

they 
their  or  theirs 

Objective 

it 

them 

The  personal  pronouns  in  their  possessive  forms,1  my, 
our,  your,  his,  her,  its,  and  their,  are  used  as  adjectives. 

1  These  words  may  be  considered  as  either  pronouns  or  adjectives.  His 
is  strictly  the  possessive  case  of  he,  as  John's  is  the  possessive  case  of  John, 
but  in  modern  English  his  is  in  effect  an  adjective  and  may  be  so  regarded. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  other  words. 


128  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  forms  mine,  ours,  yours,  his,  hers,  theirs,  are  used 
in  the  predicate.  In  the  sentence,  "The  book  is  mine," 
mine  stands  for  the  two  words  "my  book."  Ours, 
yours,  his,  hers,  its,  and  theirs  should  never  be  written 
with  the  apostrophe. 

Exercise  139 

Select  all  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  the 
number,  person,  and  case  of  each  :— 

1.  She  was  clad  entirely  in  white. 

2.  She  never  showed  any  dislike  for  her  work. 

3.  He  is  witty  in  his  way. 

4.  You  frighten  me. 

5.  We  will  talk  about  them  at  another  time. 

6.  Feeding  his  mind  with  many  sweet  thoughts  he  jour- 
neyed along. 

7.  They  had   now  reached  the  road   leading  to   Sleepy 
Hollow. 

8.  His  heart  began  to  sink  within  him. 

9.  "  Your  excellency,"  said  he,  "  I  am  a  soldier." 

10.  I  take  thee  at  thy  word. 

11.  Hush,  hush!  do  not  let  her  hear  you. 

12.  Thou  art  the  man. 

13.  Thy  will  be  done. 

Exercise  HO 

Fill  out  the  blanks  with  appropriate  personal  pronouns.    Give 
the  number,  person,  and  case  of  each : — 

She  unfastened  the  single  window,  raised and  leaned 

out,  watching  the  yellow  leaves  as fluttered  down  from 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS  129 

the  elms.    A  swallow  darted  past ,  but thoughts 

were  on  other  things.  -  mused  on  the  quaint  old  por- 

traits that  hung  in  the  long  gallery.    There  was  the  soldier  of 

a  hundred  years  before,  wearing gay  uniform ;  there 

was   a  sweet-faced  girl  with  golden  curls  sweeping  

shoulders;  there  were  ladies  with hair  powdered  and 

-  gowns  strangely  figured;  there  was  a  family  group, 

the  mother  holding  -    youngest  child  upon knee 

and  the  father  standing  with four  sons  about . 

As  -  -  mused  -  -  thought,  "  Shall  look  so 

strange  a  hundred  years  hence?     One  of  those  men  reminds 

of own  father." 

In  the  midst  of revery heard  the  door  softly 

open  and  the  voice  of  the  old  housekeeper,  "  Do want 

to  see  the  other  rooms  ?    If do have  j  ust  enough 

time  to  see before  supper." 

COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

Some  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  combined  with 
self  or  selves  to  form  compound  personal  pronouns.  In- 
stances occur  in  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  Robert  himself  was  there. 

2.  Robert  hurt  himself. 

In  the  first  sentence  himself  is  used  to  give  emphasis 
to  Robert,  and  is  an  appositive.  In  the  second,  himself 
is  the  object  of  hurt  and  has  a  reflexive  1  use.  Robert 
hurt,  not  somebody  else,  but  himself. 

1  Reflexive  means  turning  back. 


130  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are:— 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

myself  ....         ourselves 

thyself    ) 

!«  f    .         .         .         .         yourselves 
yourselt  ) 

himself   \ 

herself     r    .         .         •         .         themselves 

itself        ) 

oneself      | 

one^s  self  j 

Be  careful  to  avoid  hisself  and  theirselves. 

Exercise  1^1 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  appropriate 
compound  personal  pronouns,  and  tell  whether  each  is  used  in  a 
reflexive  or  an  emphatic  sense:— 

1 .  The  President came  to  the  window. 

2.  The  soldier  saved by  a  quick  turn  to  the  right. 

3.  Queen  Victoria  in  her  later  years  kept in  retire- 
ment. 

4.  The  shopkeepers  busied to  make  ready  for  the 

spring  season. 

5.  The  actress  read  the  letter . 

6.  That,  in ,  was  enough  to  attract  attention. 

7.  After  an  hour  the  fury  of  the  storm  spent . 

8.  I  can  hardly  forgive  . 

9.  He  does  not  trust . 

10.  We  have  reserved  these  rooms  for . 


11.  The  boatman  braced against  a  post. 


RELATIVE    PRONOUNS  131 

12.  The  fanatics  threw into  the  river. 

13.  It  is  well  sometimes  to  see -  as  others  see  us. 

14.  You  ought  to  be  ashamed  of . 

15.  As  well  as  I  could  I  excused  . 

Exercise  11$ 

Use  six  compound  personal  pronouns  in  sentences  in  an  em- 
phatic sense  and  six  in  a  reflexive  sense. 

CHAPTER    LII 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS1 

We  must  now  study  more  in  detail  some  pronouns 
that  we  have  already  briefly  considered  (p.  68).  Note 
the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  In  the  meantime  the  captain,  who  had  said  nothing,  was 
studying  a  large  chart. 

£.  The  other  vessel,  which  was  lying  at  the  wharf,  was  a 
long,  slender  craft. 

Who  is  a  pronoun  because  it  is  used  instead  of  the 
noun  captain,  and  refers  to  him  without  naming  him. 
It  also  introduces  the  dependent  clause,  "who  has  said 
nothing,"  and  connects  this  clause  with  the  noun  cap- 
tain, which  stands  in  the  main  clause,  "In  the  mean- 
time the  captain  was  studying  a  large  chart."  Who  is 
called  a  Relative  Pronoun,1  and  captain  is  its  Antecedent. 
Give  two  reasons  why  which,  in  the  second  sentence, 
is  a  relative  pronoun.  What  is  its  antecedent? 

1  Review  Chapter  XXX. 


132  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  ivhich,  that,  as,  and 
what. 

Who  refers  to  persons,  which  to  things,  and  that  to 
either  persons  or  things.  As  is  used  when  the  ante- 
cedent is  such,  many,  or  same.  What  has  no  antecedent 
and  is  always  used  in  a  noun-clause. 

DECLENSION  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 
Who  and  which  are  declined  as  follows : — 

SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL  SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL 

Nominative  who  which 

Possessive  whose  whose 

Objective  whom  which 

What,  that,  and  as  are  not  declined. 

Who  is  either  masculine  or  feminine,  ivhich  is  gen- 
erally neuter,  and  as  and  that  may  be  masculine,  femi- 
nine, or  neuter. 

Which  is  often  used  to  refer  to  lower  animals,  and  could  formerly 
be  used  in  referring  to  persons.  Whose  is  the  possessive  of  both 
who  and  which,  and  hence  may  refer  to  persons  or  things.  But 
usually  of  which  is  used  in  referring  to  lifeless  things. 

AGREEMENT  WITH  ANTECEDENT 

Relative  pronouns,  like  personal  pronouns,  have  the 
same  gender,  number,  and  person  as  the  nouns  for  which 
they  stand. 

Exercise  H3 

Select  the  antecedents  of  the  relative  pronouns,  and  the  verbs 
used  in  the  relative  clauses:— 


CASE    OF    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS  133 

1.  I,  who  am  now  in  Chicago,  have  just  received  your  letter. 

2.  You  who  are  still  young  do  not  understand  such  mat- 
ters. 

3.  My  uncle,  who  stands  at  the  window,  sees  us. 

4.  The  Simpsons,  who  are  now  in  New  York,  have  lived  for 
years  in  California. 

5.  I,  who  have  been  a  soldier,  find  the  life  here  very  tame. 

6.  The  men  who  know  most  about  danger  are  not  always 
ready  to  talk  about  it. 

7.  I  like  music  that  has  some  life  in  it. 

8.  But  you,  who  are  always  dreaming,  prefer  music  that 
puts  you  to  sleep. 

9.  Yet  I,  who  see  how  much  need  there  is  for  wisdom,  dare 
say  no  more. 

10.  No  one  here  knows  me,  who  am  carrying  the  good  news 
from  city  to  city. 

11.  Here  is  one  of  the  novels  that  have  been  most  popular 
this  year. 

12.  That  is  one  of  the  steamers  which  sail  for  Liverpool 
on  Saturday. 

CASE  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

Although  a  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  gender,  number,  and  person,  its  case  depends 
upon  its  relation  to  other  words  in  the  dependent 
clause  in  which  it  stands.  For  example: — 

1.  The  messenger  who  dashed  into  camp  had  ridden  hard. 

2.  The  messenger  whom  we  saw  had  ridden  hard. 

3.  The  messenger,  whose  horse  was  covered  with  foam,  had 
ridden  hard. 


134  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

In  all  three  sentences  messenger  is  the  antecedent, 
but  the  construction  of  the  relative  pronoun,  that  is, 
its  relation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence,  requires 
that  it  should  have  the  nominative  form  in  the  first  sen- 
tence, the  objective  form  in  the  second,  and  the  possessive 
form  in  the  third. 

THE  EXPLANATORY  RELATIVE  CLAUSE  AND  THE  RESTRICTIVE 
RELATIVE  CLAUSE 

Some  details  about  the  use  of  relative  pronouns  re- 
quire a  word  of  explanation.  Study  the  following 
sentences  :— 

1.  This  morning  I  met  George  Blake,  who  has  lived  in 
France  ten  years. 

2.  An  animal  that  has  four  feet  is  a  quadruped. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  relative  clause,  "who  has 
lived  in  France  ten  years,"  tells  something  about 
George  Blake  by  adding  the  fact  that  he  has  lived  ten 
years  in  France.  A  relative  clause  so  used  is  called  an 
Explanatory  Relative  Clause.  It  is  separated  from  the  main 
clause  by  a  comma. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  relative  clause,  "that  has 
four  feet,"  limits  or  restricts  the  meaning  of  animal. 
It  is  an  animal  "that  has  four  feet"  and  not  an  animal 
"that  has  two  feet."  The  relative  used  to  introduce 
such  a  restrictive  clause  is  called  the  Restrictive  Relative. 
A  restrictive  relative  clause  cannot  be  omitted  without 
destroying  the  sense.  It  is  never  separated  by  a  comma 
from  the  main  clause. 


THE    RELATIVE    WHAT  135 

The  relative  pronoun,  used  in  an  explanatory  clause,  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  restrictive  relative  by  substituting  the  words 
and  I  (you,  he,  she,  it,  they)  for  the  relative  pronoun.  If  the  relative 
is  restrictive,  no  such  substitution  is  possible. 

Restrictive  relative  clauses  are  most  commonly  in- 
troduced by  that,  but  sometimes  by  who  or  which. 

The  relative  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  such  as,  "  He  is 
the  man  [that]  I  saw  yesterday,"  "Here  is  the  book  [thatj  I  want." 

THE  RELATIVE   What 

What  is  unlike  the  other  relative  pronouns  in  having 
no  antecedent.  It  is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  "that 
which"  or  "the  thing  which,"  and  has  a  double  con- 
struction. Note  the  following  sentences : — 

1.  I  remember  what  you  said. 

2.  What  you  said  is  forgotten. 

3.  What  is  ill  spent  is  wasted. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  what  introduces  a  de- 
pendent clause.  In  the  first  sentence  the  dependent 
clause  is  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  remember;  in 
the  second,  the  clause  is  the  subject  of  is  forgotten; 
in  the  third,  the  clause  is  the  subject  of  is  wasted. 
In  each  sentence  what  has  a  double  construction.  In 
the  first  sentence  it  is  the  direct  object  of  the  two 
verbs  remember  and  said;  in  the  second,  it  is  the  direct 
object  of  said  and  the  subject  of  is  forgotten;  in  the 
third,  it  is  the  subject  of  both  verbs.  This  double  con- 
struction may  be  made  still  clearer  if  in  each  sentence 


136  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

we  substitute  for  what  the  equivalent  expressions  that 
ivhich  or  the  thing  which. 

What  always  introduces  a  noun- clause. 

COMPOUND  RELATIVES 

Ever  and  soever  are  combined  with  who,  which,  and 
ivhat  to  form  the  Compound  Relatives  tvhoever,  whoso- 
ever, whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  whatsoever. 

Exercise  144 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  relative  pronouns. 
Tell  what  dependent  clause  each  relative  pronoun  introduces; 
what  its  antecedent  is;  how  it  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender,  number,  and  person;  and  explain  its  case: — 

1.  The  tree  that  grows  nearest  the  fence  is  a  poplar. 

2.  The  trees  that  grow  on  this  side  are  oaks. 

3.  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  a  writer  who  was  equally  great 
as  poet  and  as  novelist. 

4.  Her  health,  which  was  not  robust,  sank  under  the  blow. 

5.  I  wish  you  would  send  me  all  the  varieties  of  golden-rod 
that  you  find. 

6.  Those  red  brick  buildings,  which  were  once  intended  for 
a  hospital,  are  now  used  for  a  school. 

7.  The  people  who  write  asking  for  money  sometimes  for- 
get to  enclose  stamps  for  a  reply. 

8.  A  novelist  who  has  written  one  endurable  story  is  too 
often  tempted  to  write  another. 

9.  The  old  writing-desk,  which  was  of  solid  mahogany, 
was  sadly  battered. 


INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS  137 

10.  Stanley  shouted  to  the  guide,  whom  he  saw  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  party. 

1 1 .  This  is  the  little  island  that  I  want  to  buy. 

12.  On  the  other  side  is  an  old  stone  house,  which  we  shall 
see  in  a  moment. 

Exercise  14.5 

In  Exercises  143,  144  which  relative  clauses  are  re- 
strictive and  which  are  explanatory?  Explain  the  use  or 
omission  of  commas. 

CHAPTER    LIII 

I  INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS 

Among  the  most  useful  pronouns  are  those  used  in 
asking  questions.  Who,  which,  and  what,  when  used 
in  this  way,  are  called  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

The  interrogative  ivho  refers  to  persons,  what  usu- 
ally refers  to  things,  and  which  to  persons  or  things. 

Who  in  its  interrogative  use  is  declined  like  the  rela- 
tive who,  but  which  and  what  remain  unchanged. 

Exercise  146 

What  is  the  construction,  that  is,  the  case,  of  each  interrogative 
pronoun  in  the  following  sentences:— 

1 .  Who  are  those  men  at  the  head  of  the  procession  ? 

2.  What  have  they  in  their  hands? 

3.  What  do  you  suppose  they  will  do  next? 

4.  What  are  those  gilded  wagons? 

5.  Which  do  you  mean? 

6.  Which  are  the  soldiers  and  which  are  the  sailors? 

7.  Whom  do  you  mean? 


138  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

8.  Who  is  coming? 

9.  What  does  he  want? 

10.  For  whom  are  you  waiting? 

INDIRECT  QUESTIONS 

Who,  whom,  which,  ivhat  are  often  used  in  questions 
that  do  not  exactly  reproduce  the  words  of  the  ques- 
tioner. Such  questions  are  called  Indirect  Questions, 

All  indirect  questions  are  Indirect  Quotations. 

Exercise  H7 
Point  out  the  indirect  questions  in  the  following  sentences  :— 

1.  The  superintendent  asked  what  the  girls  were  studying 
at  school. 

2.  The  surly  watchman  asked  the  boy  who  had  given  him 
permission  to  sleep  in  working  hours. 

3.  My  aunt  asked  what  I  expected  to  do  in  town. 

4.  The  conductor  asked  the  man  who  he  was,  and  what 
was  his  destination. 

5.  The  inspector  inquired  who  had  broken  the  windows  in 
the  factory. 

6.  The  general  inquired  who  the  stragglers  were. 

7.  A  captain  asked  the  stragglers  who  had  allowed  them 
to  pass  the  lines. 

8.  The    merchant   inquired    who    the    messenger   was    and 
whom  he  represented. 

9.  He  asked  me  which  I  meant  to  sell  first. 

Exercise  148 

Change  to  direct  questions  the  indirect  questions  of  the  pre- 
ceding exercise.  Be  careful  in  your  punctuation. 


KINDS    OF    ADJECTIVES  139 

CHAPTER    LIV 

THE   ADJECTIVE1 

We  now  return  to  the  Adjective,  which  we  studied 
briefly  in  a  preceding  chapter.  The  adjective  is  of 
great  value  in  enabling  us  to  give  much  information  in 
small  space.  Sometimes  the  adjective  is  as  important 
a  part  of  the  sentence  as  the  noun  it  modifies.  Note 
the  following  sentences: — 

1.  Soldiers  were  riding. 

2.  Fifty  soldiers  were  riding  across  the  plains. 

3.  Fifty  American  soldiers  were  riding  across  the  hot,  dusty 
plains. 

4.  All  these  men  had  served  during  the  Spanish- American 
War, 

5.  This  brave  company  was  a  part  of  the  Second  Regiment. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  noun  soldiers  stands  with- 
out any  modifying  word.  In  the  second  sentence  the 
word  fifty  modifies  the  meaning  of  soldiers  by  limiting 
the  company  to  a  definite  number,  although  it  tells  us 
nothing  about  the  kind  or  quality  of  the  soldiers.  But 
American  describes  soldiers  by  telling  us  something 
about  their  nationality,  Spanish- American  describes  the 
war,  and  the  words  hot,  dusty  present  qualities  very 
descriptive  of  the  plains.  All  includes  the  entire  body 
of  men,  and  these  and  this  point  out  those  just  men- 
tioned. Brave  indicates  the  quality  of  the  company. 

1  Review  Chapter  VII. 


140  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Second  limits  the  company  to  men  from  a  particular 
regiment. 

American,  hot,  dusty,  Spanish- American,  brave,  are 
called  Descriptive  Adjectives1  because  they  describe  the 
object  named  by  the  noun.  All,  these,  this,  Fifty, 
Second,  are  called  Limiting  Adjectives  because  they  limit 
the  meaning  of  the  noun  by  telling  which  objects  are 
meant,  how  many,  and  so  on. 

Descriptive  Adjectives  also  limit  the  meaning  of 
nouns,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  examples:— 
Men,  white  men,  red  men,  brown  men,  yellow  men, 
tall  men,  short  men.  The  word  men  includes  all  ob- 
jects of  a  certain  kind.  But  white  limits  the  applica- 
tion of  the  noun  to  a  certain  kind  of  men,  red  to  a  still 
different  kind,  brown  to  a  third  kind,  and  so  on. 

Some  grammarians  carefully  distinguish  between  descriptive 
adjectives  and  limiting  adjectives;  and  it  is  evident  that  some 
adjectives  are  highly  descriptive,  while  others  add  nothing  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  things  themselves.  But  the 
distinction  is  in  many  cases  difficult  to  draw,  and  often  not  very 
important.  In  the  strictest  sense,  every  descriptive  adjective  is  to 
some  extent  limiting,  though  a  limiting  adjective  may  be  in  no 
sense  descriptive. 

Since  pronouns  are  used  to  take  the  place  of  nouns, 
they  too  may  be  modified  by  adjectives. 

Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names  are  called 
Proper  Adjectives;  as,  American  from  America. 

1  Sometimes  called  Qualifying  Adjectives. 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES  141 

Exercise  149 
Form  proper  adjectives  from  the  following  words:— 

Europe,  Africa,  Australia,  Rome,  Paris,  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Italy. 

Notice  that  proper  adjectives,  like  proper  nouns,  should  begin 
with  capitals. 

The  possessive  pronouns  are  used  as  adjectives  (see 
page  127). 

Numerals  are  used  as  adjectives  to  indicate  a  definite 
number  of  objects;  as,  one,  two,  three.  Numeral  Ad- 
jectives include  also  such  words  as  first,  second,  third, 
fourth,  etc.,  which  tell  definitely  which  object  of  a  series 
is  meant. 

A  numeral  may  be  used  as  a  noun.  For  example, 
"Six  of  the  men  were  Germans." 

An  adjective  preceded  by  the  definite  article  may 
be  used  as  a  noun;  as, — 

The  rich,  the  poor,  the  young,  the  old,  the  middle-aged,  the 
good,  the  bad,  the  best,  the  worst,  are  to  be  found  in  a  great 
city. 

CHAPTER   LV 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

We  are  constantly  making  comparisons,  and  we  find 
adjectives  very  useful  in  the  process.  Note  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: — 

John  is  quick. 

William  is  quicker. 

Henry  is  the  quickest  messenger  boy  in  town. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

You  will  notice  that  the  descriptive  adjective  quick 
indicates  a  quality  belonging  to  John;  quicker  is  used 
in  comparing  William  with  John;  quickest,  in  com- 
paring Henry  with  all  the  messenger  boys  in  town. 
From  this  we  see  that  the  adjective  quick  changes  its 
form  to  indicate  different  degrees  of  quality.  This  change 
is  called  Comparison.  There  are  three  degrees  of  com- 
parison, the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  the  Superlative. 

The  Positive  Degree  is  the  unchanged  form  of  the 
adjective. 

The  Comparative  Degree  indicates  that  one  object  has 
a  quality  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  than  another. 

The  Superlative  Degree  indicates  that  one  object  has 
a  quality  in  the  highest  or  lowest  degree. 

Study  the  comparison  of  the  following  words: — 


OSITIVE 

COMPARATIVE 

SUPERLATIVE 

great 

greater 

greatest 

true 

truer 

truest 

long 

longer 

longest 

Study  also  the  following: — 

Helen  is  intelligent. 

Maud  is  more  intelligent. 

Sarah  is  the  most  intelligent  of  all. 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

beautiful  more  beautiful  most  beautiful 

eloquent  more  eloquent  most  eloquent 

bashful  more  bashful  most  bashful 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES  143 

From  these  examples  we  see  that  adjectives  are  com- 
pared in  two  ways:  (1)  By  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
positive;  (2)  by  using  more  and  most  with  the  posi- 
tive. Sometimes  less  and  least  are  used  in  compari- 
sons; as,  intelligent,  less  intelligent,  least  intelligent. 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable  and  some  adjectives  of 
two  syllables  form  their  comparatives  by  adding  er  and 
est  to  the  positive.  Some  adjectives  of  two  syllables 
and  all  adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  compared 
by  combining  more  and  most  or  less  and  least  with 
the  positive  form.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  in 
both  ways. 

There  is  no  invariable  rule  to  be  followed  in  the  comparison 
of  adjectives.  In  some  cases  the  form  to  be  preferred  depends 
largely  upon  the  sound.  We  should,  for  example,  find  more  gracious 
and  most  gracious  easier  to  pronounce  than  graciouser  and  graciousest. 
But  such  forms  were  once  common.  Double  comparatives  such  as 
more  hotter  and  more  darker,  and  double  superlatives  such  as  most 
hottest  and  most  gladdest  were  formerly  in  good  use,  but  they  are  no 
longer  permissible. 

The  following  adjectives  have  an  irregular  com- 
parison :— 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 


worse   ....  worst 


«  (  farther      ....     farthest 

far    .     .     .     .  A 

(  further      ....     furthest 


144 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


POSITIVE 

good .     .     . 
late   .     .     . 

little      .     . 

many  ) 
much  j 

near  .     .     . 
old    . 


COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

better best 

later latest 

latter last 

less )  , 

V  least 

lesser    ) 

more    ....  most 


nearer 

older 
elder 


nearest 
next 
oldest 
eldest 


A  considerable  number  of  other  adjectives  present  irregularities 
that  may  be  learned  by  practice. 

Some  adjectives,  such  as  daily,  dead,  living,  golden, 
entire,  whole,  etc.,  properly  admit  no  comparison. 

Such  adjectives  also  as  perfect,  round,  straight,  and 
square  cannot,  in  the  strictest  sense,  be  compared,  for 
if  anything  is  square  or  perfect  it  cannot  be  more 
so.  But  in  actual  use  such  adjectives  are  often  com- 
pared, since  we  do  not  commonly  think  of  a  quality  as 
existing  to  perfection  in  any  object.  Hence  we  often  say 
straight,  straighter,  straightest,  meaning  thereby  nearly 
straight,  more  nearly  straight,  most  nearly  straight. 
But  comparisons  of  this  sort  should  not  be  employed 
to  excess. 

In  using  adjectives  in  the  comparative  degree  we 
must  be  careful  to  use  the  word  other  so  as  to  exclude 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES  145 

the  first  object  from  the  group  of  objects  with  which 
it  is  to  be  compared:— 

"Helen  was  quicker  than  any  girl  in  her  class"  is 
not  correct,  because  "any  girl  in  her  class"  includes 
"Helen,"  and  she  cannot  be  quicker  than  herself.  But 
if  we  say,  "Helen  was  quicker  than  any  other  girl  in 
her  class,"  the  word  other  excludes  Helen  from  the 
group  of  girls  with  whom  she  is  compared. 

In  using  the  superlative  degree,  however,  the  first 
object  must  be  included  in  the  group  with  which  it  is 
compared;  as,  "Helen  is  the  quickest  of  all  the  girls 
in  her  class."  If  we  should  use  the  word  other  our 
statement  would  be  untrue. 

FORMS  OF  PRONOUNS  AFTER  COMPARISONS 

In  making  comparisons  the  verb  is  often  omitted 
after  the  conjunctions  than  or  as.  In  such  instances 
the  proper  pronoun  may  be  found  by  supplying  the 
omitted  verb;  as — 

He  can  read  better  than  I  [can], 
I  can  read  better  than  he  [can]. 
He  can  read  better  than  she  [can]. 
He  can  read  as  well  as  they  [can], 

Exercise  150 

In  what  degree  of  comparison  is  each  of  the  following  adjec- 
tives ?  Write  the  comparison  of  each  :— 

Less,  famous,  handsome,  longer,  sudden,  firmer,  bitter,  like, 
ruddy,  newest,  safe,  little,  close,  more  transparent,  icy,  gray, 


146  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

calm,  plain,  high,  lofty,  manly,  greatest,  most  unpleasant, 
fine,  dismal,  low,  next,  large,  fearful,  gloomy,  dark,  fragrant, 
invisible,  least. 

Exercise  151 

Use  an  appropriate  adjective  to  describe  each  of  the  following 
nouns : — 

Carpet,  chair,  water,  spray,  foam,  hill,  rocks,  peaks,  scenery, 
pain,  fever,  pride,  field,  river,  boat,  street,  dust,  ship,  sails, 
mast,  light,  cry,  stars,  moon,  eye,  face,  hand,  work,  frost,  snow, 
rain,  fog,  wind,  waves,  butterfly,  roses,  diamonds,  silver,  dog, 
orange. 


CHAPTER    LVI 

ARTICLES 

Two  adjectives  of  frequent  use  are  the  Definite  Arti- 
cle the  and  the  Indefinite  Article  a  or  an.  The  may 
be  used  with  either  singular  or  plural  nouns.  A  or  an 
is  used  with  nouns  in  the  singular  number  only. 

A  stands  before  words  which  begin  with  consonant 
sounds;  as,  a  boy,  a  man,  a  soldier,  a  united  people. 
Here  you  will  notice  that  in  the  last  example  a  stands 
before  a  word  beginning  with  the  letter  u.  But  the 
initial  sound  of  united  is  like  that  of  y  as  in  young. 

An  stands  before  words  which  begin  with  vowel 
sounds;1  as,  an  acorn,  an  eagle,  an  inch,  an  omnibus, 
an  honest  man.  You  will  notice  that  the  last  an  stands 

1  See  footnote  (p.  110). 


THE    ARTICLES  147 

before  the  word  honest,  which  is  written  with  initial 
h  but  has  an  initial  vowel  sound,  since  the  h  is  silent. 

When  an  article  stands  before  only  the  first  of  two 
or  more  connected  nouns,  it  indicates  that  but  one 
object  is  named;  as,  "The  secretary  and  treasurer." 
But  when  an  article  stands  before  each  of  the  nouns  it 
indicates  that  different  objects  are  named;  as,  "The 
secretary  and  the  treasurer." 

With  adjectives  the  articles  are  similarly  used. 
When  the  article  stands  before  only  the  first  of  two 
or  more  connected  adjectives  it  indicates  that  but  one 
object  is  meant  by  the  noun;  as,  "The  brown  and 
yellow  leaf."  But  when  the  article  is  repeated  with 
each  of  the  adjectives  it  indicates  that  different  objects 
are  meant;  as,  "The  brown  and  the  yellow  leaf." 
That  is,  two  leaves,  one  brown  and  one  yellow,  are 
named. 

An  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis  the  article  is  repeated  before  each  noun 
or  adjective  of  a  series  where  only  one  object  is  meant; 
as,  "The  solemn,  the  stately,  the  majestic  procession." 

Exercise  152 

a   or   an  before  each  of  the  following  words,  and  give 
reasons  for  your  choice:— 

Book,  letter,  newspaper,  exception,  table,  journey,  anchor, 
nty,  mountain,  useful,  sleigh,  snow-storm,  cloud,  season,  home, 

intry,  house,  company,  office,  egg,  fort,  army,  platform, 
opinion,  cannon,  undertaking,  library,  ink-bottle,  year,  union. 


148  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    LVII 

PRONOUNS   USED   AS   ADJECTIVES 

We  have  already  discussed  at  some  length  the  use 
of  pronouns  and  adjectives.  We  now  briefly  notice 
a  class  of  words  which  are  used  sometimes  as  pro- 
nouns and  sometimes  as  adjectives.  Some  gramma- 
rians call  such  words  Pronominal  Adjectives,  and  others, 
Adjective  Pronouns.  These  include  Relative  Adjectives, 
Interrogative  Adjectives,  Indefinite  Adjectives,  and 
Demonstrative  Adjectives. 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  USED  AS  ADJECTIVES 

The  relative  pronouns  which  and  what  are  some- 
times used  as  adjectives.  For  example,— 

I  do  not  know  which  piece  of  work  to  do  first. 
It  does  not  matter  so  much  what  work  you  do  as  how  well 
you  do  it. 

Which  and  what  when  used  thus  with  nouns  are 
called  Relative  Adjectives. 

Exercise  153 
"Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing*  a  relative  adjective. 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  USED  AS  ADJECTIVES 

The  interrogative  pronouns  which  and  what  have  a 
similar  use;  as, — 


INDEFINITE    ADJECTIVES  149 

Which  part  of  the  programme  did  you  like  best? 
What  sound  was  that? 

Which  and  what  when  so  used  are  called  Interrogative 
Adjectives. 

Exercise  154 

In  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  which  and  what  used 
as  pronouns  and  in  which  as  adjectives] 

1.  What  did  you  say  ? 

2.  What  book  have  you  in  your  hand? 

3.  Which  of  these  books  is  yours? 

4.  Which  train  goes  to  Boston? 

5.  What  is  the  delay? 

Exercise  155 
Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  an  interrogative  adjective. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  USED  AS  ADJECTIVES 

There  is  another  class  of  pronouns  that  represent 
objects  so  indefinitely  that  they  are  called  Indefinite 
Pronouns.  Many  of  them  may  be  used  as  adjectives, 
and  when  so  used  they  are  called  Indefinite  Adjectives. 
Compare  these  sentences : — 

1.  Each  boy  did  his  best. 

2.  Each  did  his  best. 

3.  Both  sailors  were  Englishmen. 

4.  Both  were  Englishmen. 

In  which  sentences  are  each  and  both  used  as  pro- 
nouns, and  why?  In  which  are  they  used  as  adjec- 
tives, and  why? 


150  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  following  list  contains  some  of  the  indefinite 

pronouns  in  most  common  user- 
All,  any,  another,  both,  certain,  each,  each  other,  either, 

few,   many,   none,   neither,  one,  other,   one  another,   several, 

some,  such. 

All  the  pronouns  of  the  foregoing  list  except  each 
other  and  one  another  may  be  used  as  adjectives. 
These  are  sometimes  called  Reciprocal  Pronouns. 
There  are  other  indefinite  pronouns,  such  as  every  one, 
everything,  everybody,  any  one,  anything,  anybody,  no 
one,  nobody,  nothing,  somebody,  some  one,  and  some- 
thing, that  cannot  be  used  as  adjectives  because  they 
cannot  be  used  to  modify  nouns. 

Grammarians  do  not  precisely  agree  as  to  the  words  properly  to 
be  classed  here,  for  the  number  of  words  that  are  used  some- 
times as  adjectives,  sometimes  as  nouns,  and  sometimes  as  indefi- 
nite pronouns  is  considerable. 

Exercise  156 

In  the  following  sentences  explain  whether  the  words  in  italics 
are  used  as  pronouns  or  as  adjectives: — 

1.  Either  course  of  action  presents  difficulties. 

2.  Have  you  any  other  to  suggest? 

3.  Have  all  the  boys  come? 

4.  Here  are  six,  but  are  there  others? 

5.  Some  are  coming  to-morrow. 

6.  In  such  weather  we  must  try  to  find  some  dry  place. 

7.  Each  man  here  must  do  his  duty. 

8.  Do  not  try  to  hide  behind  one  another. 


DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS  151 

9.  They  see  none  of  us,  I  am  sure. 

10.  Any  man  that  tries  to  run  away  disgraces  himself. 

11.  You  may  keep  all  you  find. 

12.  Few  are  worth  keeping. 

13.  Have  you  found  any  yet? 

14.  Neither  of  us  can  find  any  thing. 

15.  Here  is  one. 

16.  There  is  another. 

17.  Each  is  somewhat  damaged. 

Exercise  157 
Write  ten  sentences,  using  in  each  an  indefinite  adjective. 

DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS   USED    AS   ADJECTIVES 

Observe  the  use  of  this  and  that  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

1.  This  is  your  book.     This  book  is  yours. 

2.  That  is  his  apple.    That  apple  is  his. 

It  is  clear  that  this  and  that  in  the  first  sentence  of 
each  pair  are  pronouns,  because  they  represent  objects 
without  naming  them.  This  refers  to  objects  near  at 
hand;  that  to  objects  farther  away.  Since  they  point 
out  definitely  the  objects  to  which  they  refer  they  are 
called  Demonstrative1  Pronouns. 

In  the  second  sentence  of  each  pair  the  demonstra- 
tive pronoun  becomes  an  adjective  because  it  is  used 
to  modify  the  meaning  of  the  noun.  Demonstrative 

1  Demonstrative  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  which  means  to  point  out. 


152  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

pronouns  when  used  as  adjectives  are  called  Demon- 
strative Adjectives. 

These  and  those,  the  plural  forms  of  this  and  that, 
must  agree  in  number  with  the  nouns  they  modify. 
We  sometimes  hear  the  expressions,  "  These  kind  of 
people,"  "Those  sort  of  things."  What  is  wrong  in 
each  instance? 

Be  careful  not  to  use  them  for  those  in  such  cases  as  "  Where  are 
those  books  ?  "  "  Have  you  seen  those  boys?  " 

Exercise  158 

In  the  following  sentences  tell  when  this,  that,  these,  and 
those  are  pronouns  and  when  they  are  adjectives: — 

1 .  We  must  do  that  if  we  can. 

2.  That  is  more  than  we  can  do. 

3.  That  work  is  too  hard. 

4.  This  train  goes  at  nine  o'clock. 

5.  Is  this  the  train  for  Boston? 

6.  No,  this  is  the  train  for  Montreal. 

7.  These  exercises  are  easy. 

8.  These  are  easy  exercises. 

9.  Those  are  the  best  grapes. 

10.  Those  grapes  in  the  basket  are  better  than  these. 

11.  Do  these  grapes  cost  much  more  than  those? 

Exercise  159 
Write  ten  sentences,  using  in  each  a  demonstrative  adjective. 


REVIEW    OF    PRONOUNS  153 

CHAPTER    LVIII 

A    REVIEW 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  noun  and  a  pro- 
noun! To  illustrate  this  difference  write  five  sen- 
tences, each  containing  both  a  noun  and  a  pronoun. 

When  is  a  pronoun  in  •  the  first  person  1  In  the 
second  person?  In  the  third  person?  Decline  the 
personal  pronouns  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  per- 
sons. Name  the  possessive  pronouns. 

Define  a  relative  pronoun.  What  is  meant  by  the 
antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun?  Name  the  relative 
pronouns  and  illustrate  their  use  by  putting  each  of 
them  into  a  sentence.  In  each  of  your  sentences  point 
out  the  antecedent,  the  relative  clause,  and  the  main 
clause. 

Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  an  explana- 
tory relative  clause;  also  three  containing  restrictive 
relative  clauses.  Which  of  these  relative  clauses  must 
be  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more 
commas  ? 

In  what  two  respects  is  what  unlike  the  other  rela- 
tive pronouns?  Write  five  sentences  in  each  of  which 
you  use  what  as  a  relative. 

What  are  the  interrogative  pronouns?  Why  so 
called?  Use  each  of  them  in  two  interrogative  sen- 
tences. 

Define  an  adjective.  Compare  the  following  ad- 
jectives: Goody  true,  honest,  manly,  noble,  earnest^ 


154  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

sincere,  industrious.  Write  three  sentences,  each  con- 
taining an  adjective  in  the  positive  degree ;  three  con- 
taining adjectives  in  the  comparative  degree;  and 
three  containing  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree. 

Why  is  the  called  the  definite  article,  and  a  or  an 
the  indefinite  article?  What  is  the  difference  in  the 
use  of  a  and  an?  Illustrate  this  difference  by  writ- 
ing each  of  these  articles  before  ten  words. 

Write  three  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing pronouns  used  as  an  adjective:  A  relative  pro- 
noun, an  interrogative  pronoun,  an  indefinite  pronoun, 
and  a  demonstrative  pronoun. 

Why  are  the  demonstrative  pronouns  so  called? 
What  is  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  demon- 
strative and  the  indefinite  pronouns? 


CHAPTER    LIX 

TRANSITIVE   AND    INTRANSITIVE  VERBS1 

In  Chapter  XIII  we  learned  that  a  verb  is  a  word 
that  makes  an  assertion,  and  that  there  must  be  a 
verb  expressed  or  implied  in  every  sentence  we  speak 
or  write.  It  is  therefore  important  to  study  verbs  in 
more  detail,  for  when  verbs  are  once  mastered  most 
of  the  difficulties  of  grammar  disappear. 

You  will  remember  that  a  transitive  verb  must  ex- 
press action,  and  that  it  must  take  an  object  to  com- 
plete its  meaning.  Unless  these  two  things  are  true  of 

1  Review  Chapters  XIII,  XIV,  XV,  XVI. 


TRANSITIVE    AND    INTRANSITIVE    VERBS    155 

any  verb  it  is  intransitive.  Remember  that  although 
most  intransitive  verbs  express  action  they  do  not  require 
objects  to  complete  their  meaning.  Furthermore,  the  same 
verb  may  sometimes  be  used  as  a  transitive  verb  in  one 
sentence  and  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  another. 

Exercise  160 

Select  all  the  verbs  in  the  following  paragraph  and  write  them 
in  two  columns.  In  one  column  place  the  transitive  verbs,  and  in 
the  other  the  intransitive: — 

An  American  ignorant  of  French  often  finds  some  difficulty 
when  travelling  in  the  country  districts  of  France.  He  asks  the 
way  to  a  cathedral,  and  he  mistakes  the  names  of  the  streets. 
He  loses  his  baggage,  and  he  has  trouble  in  explaining  what 
he  has  lost.  He  goes  to  a  hotel  and  orders  strange  dishes. 
The  dishes  he  gets  are  probably  not  what  he  expects.  He 
wastes  money  on  cabs.  He  has  daily  trials  of  his  patience. 
He  wishes  a  hundred  times  for  the  gift  of  tongues.  He 
despises  the  people  who  do  not  understand  him.  They  appear 
so  stupid  to  him.  They  listen  politely  enough,  but  they  know 
nothing  of  his  meaning,  though  they  pretend  to  follow  every 
word. 

Exercise  161 

Construct  two  sentences  for  each  of  the  following  words.  In 
the  first  sentence  use  the  word  as  a  transitive  verb,  and  in  the 
second,  as  an  intransitive  verb:— 

Draw,  hide,  ring,  begin,  choose,  break,  bend,  shake,  catch, 
cut,  feel,  speak,  hear,  teach,  sting,  wind,  burn,  watch,  see. 


156  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    LX 

VOICE 

We  have  learned  that  all  transitive  verbs  express 
action.  We  now  observe  two  distinctly  different  ways 
in  which  the  verb  expresses  the  action  as  related  to 
the  subject.  This  difference  is  clearly  illustrated  in 
the  following  sentences: — 

1.  The  fisherman  caught  a  trout. 

£.  A  trout  was  caught  by  the  fisherman. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  subject  fisherman  is  the 
actor,  and  the  object  trout  is  the  receiver  of  the  action. 
In  the  second  sentence  the  fisherman  is  again  the  actor 
and  the  trout  is  the  receiver  of  the  action,  but  the  word 
fisherman  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb  was  caught. 
The  subject  is  trout.  In  the  first  sentence  trout  re- 
ceives the  action  as  the  object  of  the  verb.  In  the 
second  sentence,  although  trout  receives  the  action,  it 
receives  it  as  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

The  verb  caught  is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Voice, 
because  the  subject  is  the  actor,  and  the  verb  was  caught 
is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice,  because  the  subject 
is  the  receiver  of  the  action.  Hence  we  say:— 

A  verb  indicating  that  the  subject  is  the  actor  is  in  the 
Active  Voice. 

A  verb  indicating  that  the  subject  is  the  receiver  of  the 
action  is  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

In  the  two  sentences  used  for  illustration  observe 
that  the  same  verb  is  used,  but  with  a  change  in  the 
form  of  expression. 


EXERCISES    ON    VOICE  157 

Exercise  162 

Why  are  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  in  the  active 
voice  2  Rewrite  them,  and  change  the  verbs  from  the  active  to  the 
passive  voice.  Explain  in  every  case  what  changes  you  make:— 

1.  He  drove  our  coach  rapidly  down  the  narrow  road. 

2.  Above  us  on  the  hills  we  heard  the  roar  of  the  storm. 

3.  Again  the  driver  lashed  the  horses. 

4.  But  he  frightened  them  with  his  blows. 

5.  By  accident  he  dropped  his  whip. 

6.  Then  he  stopped  the  coach  and  picked  up  his  whip. 

7.  Suddenly  a  great  rolling  stone  blocked  the  path. 

8.  Serious  danger  now  threatened  us. 

9.  But  an  army  engineer,  with  the  help  of  the  other  pas- 
sengers, rolled  away  the  stone. 

10.  The  rest  of  the  trip  we  made  without  other  accident. 

Exercise  163 

Why  are  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  in  the  passive 
voice  I  Rewrite  the  sentences,  and  change  the  verbs  to  the  active 
voice.  Explain  all  changes:— 

1.  The  hall  was  filled  with  a  noisy  crowd. 

2.  The  speaker  was  greeted  with  hisses  by  the  mob. 

3.  At  times  he  was  interrupted  by  shouting  and  applaud- 
ing boys. 

4.  After  a  half-hour  he  was  compelled  by  the   growing 
tumult  to  break  off  his  speech. 

5.  While  bathing  at  the  beach  yesterday  Judge  Medway 
was  seriously  injured  by  a  huge  wave. 

6-  He  was  carried  by  his  companions  to  the  nearest  hotel. 


158  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

7.  As  soon  as  possible  he  was  examined  by  Dr.  Streeter. 

8.  Late  in  the  morning  he  was  taken  by  four  attendants 
to  the  hospital  in  an  ambulance. 

Exercise  164 

Use  each  of  the  following  verbs  in  two  sentences.  In  the  first 
sentence  use  the  verb  in  the  active  voice;  in  the  second,  in  the 
passive : — 

Catch,  carry,  print,  break,  call,  cut,  burn,  wrap,  take,  blow, 
strike,  climb,  gain,  tell,  eat,  spread,  shoot,  chase,  paint,  build, 
carve,  measure. 

Exercise  165 

Tell  whether  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  in  the 
active  or  the  passive  voice,  and  why.  Change  the  voice  of  each 
verb,  and  in  every  case  rewrite  the  entire  sentence.  What  changes 
in  form  are  necessary? 

1.  Health  filled  every  fibre  of  his  body. 

2.  The  sparrows  beat  the  windows  with  their  wings. 

3.  Every  afternoon  the  little  girl  was  taken  to  the  beach  by 
her  father. 

4.  The  major  was  struck  by  a  heavy  piece  of  timber. 

5.  The  schoolmaster  received  the  letter  at  ten  o'clock. 

6.  Our  grapes  were  spoiled  by  the  frost  last  week. 

7.  Eight  men  rowed  the  heavy  boat. 

8.  A  strong  northwest  wind  soon  drove  the  clouds  out  of 
sight. 

9.  Three  boys  were  bitten  by  a  dog  this  morning. 
10.  Five  fishermen  drew  the  net  to  the  shore. 


THE    PASSIVE    VOICE  159 

11.  The  diver  was  lifted  off  his  feet  by  a  huge  wave. 

12.  Two  delegates  were  appointed  by  the  committee. 

Since  in  all  changes  from  the  active  to  the  passive 
the  word  which  was  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active 
voice  becomes  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice, 
it  follows  that  intransitive  verbs,  which  of  course  have 
no  object,  can  have  no  passive  form.  Hence,  none  but 
transitive  verbs  have  a  passive  voice.  On  the  other  hand, 
any  verb  that  cannot  be  changed  into  the  rcassive  form  is 
intransitive. 

Though  intransitive  verbs  in  general  take  no  object,  some  verbs 
that  are  essentially  intransitive  may  take  an  object  with  a  meaning 
similar  to  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  as — 

He  lived  a  busy  life. 

He  dreamed  a  strange  dream. 

Such  an  object  is  called  a  Cognate  Object. 

Sometimes  by  placing  a  preposition  after  an  intransitive  verb 
we  may  make  a  verb-phrase  that  takes  an  object  like  a  transitive 
verb.  For  example,  "  The  dogs  barked  at  him/'  Intransitive 
verbs  thus  combined  with  prepositions  may  be  used  in  the  pas- 
sive, as,  "  He  was  barked  at  by  dogs." 

Exercise  166 

Put  into  sentences  the  following  intransitive  verbs.  Then  note 
why  you  find  it  impossible  to  use  these  verbs  in  the  passive. 


" 


Go,  laugh,  weep,  die,  shine,  bloom,  twitter,  sleep,  arrive,  rise, 
ile,  become,  appear,  seem,  wait,  perish,  flow,  wander: — 


160  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  167 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following:  verb-phrases  in  pas- 
sive form:— 

Look  at,  hoot  at,  laugh  at,  laugh  down,  look  upon,  talk 
about,  glance  at,  listen  to,  attend  to. 

Exercise  168,  for  Review 

Construct  six  sentences,  using  in  each  a  copulative  verb.  In 
three  of  them  use  a  predicate  noun,  and  in  the  others  a  predicate 
adjective. 

CHAPTER    LXI 

TENSE 

Examine  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: — 

1.  The  army  marches. 

2.  The  army  marched. 

3.  The  army  mil  march. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  same  kind  of  action 
is  expressed.  The  only  difference  is  in  the  time  when 
the  action  of  marching  takes  place.  In  the  first  sen- 
tence the  verb  asserts  the  action  as  taking  place  in 
present  time;  in  the  second,  it  asserts  the  action  as 
taking  place  in  past  time;  and  in  the  third,  it  asserts 
that  the  action  will  take  place  in  future  time. 

The  same  verb,  then,  is  used  to  express  the  same 
action  in  all  the  sentences;  but  the  verb  changes  its 
form  to  denote  a  change  in  the  time  of  the  action. 

The  indication  of  time  by  the  form  of  the  verb  is  called 
Tense. 


THE    PRESENT    TENSE  161 

The  verb  marches  is  said  to  be  in  the  Present  Tense 
because  it  expresses  action  that  takes  place  at  the 
present  time. 

The  Present  Tense  indicates  present  time. 

The  present  tense  sometimes  expresses  a  general 
truth;  as,  "Fire  melts  wax,"  "Three  times  four  are 
twelve."  It  also  states  what  is  customary  or  habitual ; 
as,  "The  President  of  the  United  States  issues  a 
Thanksgiving  proclamation  every  year,"  "The  people 
of  the  United  States  elect  a  President  every  four 
years." 

In  order  to  make  a  narrative  more  vivid,  historians 
and  other  writers  sometimes  represent  past  events  as 
taking  place  in  present  time.  The  present  tense  when 
so  used  is  called  the  Historical  Present.  For  example,— 

In  his  cramped  position  the  spy  sits,  busily  filling  his  note- 
books. Now  he  counts  the  tents,  now  he  draws  an  outline  map 
of  the  camp.  He  hears  a  footfall  and  crouches  closer  to  the 
ground.  Then  he  stealthily  crawls  to  the  rear  and  makes  his 
way  to  a  safer  position. 

The  present  tense  is  often  used  to  indicate  future 
time.  For  example,  "We  sail  to-morrow,"  "I  am 
going  to  England  next  summer,"  instead  of  "We 
shall  sail  to-morrow,"  "I  shall  go  to  England  next 
summer." 

This  use  of  the  present  tense  to  express  future  time  is  as  old 
the  English  language.     In  the  oldest  English  the  future  had 


162  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

no  special  tense -form,  and  the  future  meaning  was  regularly  ex- 
pressed by  the  present  tense. 

The  verb  marched  is  said  to  be  in  the  Past  Tense 
because  it  expresses  action  that  took  place  in  past  time. 

The  Past  Tense  indicates  past  time. 

By  past  tense  we  mean  simply  indefinite  past  time. 
For  simplicity  we  use  the  term  past  rather  than  preterite. 

The  verb  will  march  is  said  to  be  in  the  Future  Tense 
because  it  expresses  action  that  will  take  place  in 
future  time. 

The  Future  Tense  indicates  future  time. 

Exercise  169 

In  what  tense  are  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences? 
Using  he  as  subject,  write  in  corresponding  columns  the  present, 
the  past,  and  the  future  tense  of  each  verb : — 

1.  The  Golf  Club  has  seventy  members. 

2.  The  Club  House  is  a  handsome  building. 

3.  Members  pay  twenty  dollars  a  year,  but  the  initiation  fee, 
with  other  expenses,  amounts  to  a  hundred  dollars. 

4.  Each  member  has  the  privilege  of  inviting  ten  friends  on 
special  occasions. 

5.  Our  greatest  day  is  in  June. 

6.  People  come  up  from  New  York  for  single  games. 

7.  Our  best  player  practises  four  hours  a  day. 

Exercise  170 

In  what  tense  are  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences? 
Using  he  as  subject,  write  in  corresponding  columns  the  present, 
the  past,  and  the  future  tense  of  each  verb :— 


EXERCISES    ON    TENSES  163 

1.  We  went  on  Tuesday  to  see  Bunker  Hill  Monument. 

2.  On  the  way  I  bought  some  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

3.  The  bookseller  had  them  bound  handsomely. 

4.  On  Thursday  morning  we  took  the  train  for  New  York. 

5.  The  car  was  overheated,  as  usual. 

6.  As  a  result  I  caught  a  severe  cold,  to  remind  me  of  my 
trip  to  Boston. 

7.  In  New  York  we  spent  the  first  day  at  the  hotel. 

8.  On  Tuesday  we  attended  an  open-air  concert. 

9.  We  enjoyed  most  of  all  a  sail  to  Sandy  Hook. 

Exercise  171,  for  Review 

Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences.  What  is  the  sub- 
ject of  each  2  Is  the  verb  transitive  or  intransitive  1  How  do  you 
know?  In  what  tense  is  it,  and  how  can  you  tell? 

1.  David  raised  his  eyes. 

2.  Before  him  he  saw  a  little  girl. 

3.  She  shyly  covered  one  bare  foot  with  the  other. 

4.  Then  in  a  gentle  voice  she  asked  the  way  to  the  beach. 

5.  "  Take  the  first  road  to  the  left,"  said  David,  "  and  it 
will  bring  you  straight  to  the  beach.     Are  you  looking  for 
somebody?  " 

6.  "  Yes,  I  have  lost  my  little  brother.    He  wandered  away 
from  home  yesterday  morning." 

7.  David  watched  the  little  girl's  eyes. 

8.  They  had  a  troubled  expression. 

9.  In  an  instant  he  formed  a  plan. 

10.  He  called  to  one  of  the  servants,  "  Harness  the  bay 
mare  as  soon  as  you  can." 


164 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


11.  Five  minutes  later  a  handsome  horse  with  a  light  car 
riage  stood  at  the  door. 

12.  "  Climb  up  to  the  seat,  little  girl,"  said  he. 

13.  "  I  think  I  know  where  your  little  brother  is." 

14.  He  spoke  to  the  horse,  and  drove  rapidly  down  the  lane. 

15.  Two  hours  later  he  returned  with  two  rosy  faces  beam- 
ing beside  him. 

CHAPTER    LXII 

PERSON    AND    NUMBER    OF    VERBS 

We  have  considered  the  person  and  number  of  nouns 
and  pronouns  (pp.  109-114).  We  must  now  see  what 
changes  verbs  undergo  when  there  is  a  change  in  the 
person  and  number  of  the  subject.  Note  the  follow- 
ing verb-forms: — 

PRESENT  TENSE 


SINGULAR 

1.  I  am 

2.  You  are  (thou  art) 

3.  He  is 


PLURAL 

1.  We  are 

2.  You  are 

3.  They  are 


1.  I  move  1.  We  move 

2.  You  move  1  (thou  movest)     2.   You  move 

3.  He  moves  3.  They  move 

NOTE. — The  forms  of  the  solemn  style  have  been  added  for  complete- 
ness, but  they  need  not  be  made  prominent. 

1  In  such  verbs  as  mart  the  ending  est  with  the  subject  thou  in  the  sec- 
ond person  singular  was  once  common  in  everyday  speech,  but  it  is  now 
confined  chiefly  to  the  language  of  prayer  and  poetry.  The  same  is  true  of 
eth  in  the  third  person  singular.  The  endings  est  and  eth  occur  frequently 


THE    PERSON    AND    NUMBER    OF    VERBS     165 

You  here  observe  that  the  form  of  the  verb  in  sev- 
eral instances  changes  whenever  there  is  a  change  in 
the  person  and  number  of  its  subject.  In  other  words, 
the  form  of  the  verb  depends  upon  the  person  and  num- 
ber of  its  subject.  Am  must  be  used  with  the  subject  I, 
and  since  /  is  in  the  first  person,  singular  number,  the 
verb  am  is  also  said  to  be  in  the  first  person,  singular 
number,  to  agree  with  the  subject.  How  many  different 
verb-forms  do  you  find  here!  What  are  they? 

In  the  past  tense  of  the  first  of  these  two  verbs 
there  is  (if  we  disregard  the  thou-forms)  only  one 
change  in  the  form  to  denote  a  change  in  person  and 
number,  and  in  the  second  verb  there  is  no  change. 

PAST  TENSE 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  was  1.  We  were 

o    xr  \  (thou  wast)         0    vr 

J2.    You  were  1  %.    You  were 

(  (thou  wert) 
3.  He  was  3.  They  were 

1.  I  moved  1.  We  moved 

%.  You  moved  (thou  movedst)  2.   You  moved 
3.  He  moved  3.  They  moved 

Most  verbs  are  inflected  like  move. 

in  the  Bible.  You  in  the  second  person  singular  is  plural  in  form,  but  it  is 
singular  in  sense,  and  is  regularly  used  in  place  of  thou  in  ordinary  language, 
but  always  with  the  plural  form  of  the  verb.  Thou  art  was  formerly  used  in 
ordinary  speech,  but  it  is  now  found  only  in  the  older,  solemn  style.  Ye 
for  you  is  used  in  the  solemn  style. 


166  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

We  see,  then,  that  (except  for  the  endings  est  and 
eth)  the  only  change  to  indicate  agreement  with  the 
subject  in  person  and  number  is  the  addition  of  s  (es) 
in  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense. 

Exercise  172 

In  what  person  and  number  is  each  of  the  following  verbs,  and 
why? 

You  see.  He  heard.  They  knew.  You  promised.  I  swung. 
He  swam.  They  sleep.  You  will  walk.  She  teaches.  I  learn. 
We  play.  He  threw.  Will  they  run?  Who  speaks?  The 
boat  leaked.  The  wind  blew  a  gale.  The  clouds  hung  dark 
over  the  mountains. 

Exercise  173 

Write  the  third  person  singular  number  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing verbs  in  both  the  present  and  the  past  tense.  In  each  case 
use  he  as  subject  of  the  verb. 

Lead,  have,  say,  hang,  build,  go,  hold,  accept,  succeed,  read, 
sleep,  obey,  walk,  write,  see,  shake,  steal,  cost,  hurt,  shine, 
catch,  think,  believe,  leap,  keep,  complete,  shatter,  ride,  live, 
send. 

Exercise  174 

Use  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  exercise  with  the  pro- 
noun thou  as  subject. 

DON'T  FOR  DOESN'T 

A  large  proportion  of  the  errors  in  grammar  arise 
from  a  failure  to  make  a  verb  agree  with  its  subject. 
Sometimes,  for  example,  don't  is  incorrectly  used  with 
a  singular  subject  instead  of  doesn't. 


DOESN'T    AND    DON'T  167 

Always  use  doesn't  (not  don't]  when  the  subject  is 
in  the  third  person,  singular  number. 

Compare  the  following  correct  and  incorrect  forms : — 

CORRECT  INCORRECT 

1.  He  doesn't  see  well.  He  don't  see  well. 

2.  She  doesn't  dress  in  good       She  don't  dress  in  good  taste. 

taste. 

3.  It  doesn't  seem  true.  It  don't  seem  true. 

Exercise  175 

Fill  out  the  blanks  in  each  sentence  with  doesn't  or  don't, 
and  give  reasons  for  your  choice:— 

1.  George  -  -  play  base-ball. 

£.   He  -  -  like  America. 

3.  These  books  -  -  please  most  readers. 

4.  That  table  -  -  stand  firmly. 

5.  My  watch  -          -  go  well  since  I  dropped  it. 

6.  The  weather  -  -  seem  promising. 

7.  -  -  you  think  this  exercise  a  very  easy  one? 

8.  It  -  -  seem  to  call  for  much  thinking. 

9.  A  careless  pupil  -  -  observe  things  that  are  very 
evident. 

10.  As  a  result  he  —         -  make  rapid  progress  and 

enjoy  his  school-work. 

You  WAS  FOR  You  WERE 

Another  mistake  is  the  use  of  You  was  for  You  were, 
when  but  one  person  is  meant. 


168  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

In  the  eighteenth  century  You  was,  for  the  second  person  sin- 
gular, was  commonly  used  by  the  best  speakers  and  writers,  but 
it  is  no  longer  in  accord  with  good  usage. 

Exercise  176 

Write  five  declarative  sentences,  beginning  each  with  "You 
were,"  and  five  interrogative  sentences,  beginning:  each  with 
"Were  you." 

NOTE. — In  connection  with  thin  chapter  Exercise  lJf.3  (p.  132)  should 
be  carefully  studied  again. 


CHAPTER    LXIII 

SPECIAL   RULES   FOR    PERSON    AND    NUMBER   OF   VERBS 

Having  studied  the  general  rule  for  the  agreement 
of  verbs  in  person  and  number  with  their  subjects,  you 
may  well  give  attention  to  a  few  special  applications 
of  this  rule.  The  following  are  to  be  noted  :— 

1.  Two  nouns  or  pronouns  connected  by  and  usually 
have  a  plural  verb  agreeing  with  them;  as,  "The  organ 
grinder  and  the  woman  with  him  were  Italians." 

2.  Two  singular  nouns  connected  by  or,  either — or, 
neither — nor,    require    a    verb    in    the    singular ;    as, 
"Either  Helen  or  her  mother  is  ready  to  help  us  out 
of  the  difficulty,"  "Neither  James  nor  John  was  able 
to  reach  the  train  in  time." 

3.  Collective  nouns,  though  singular  in  form,  denote 
more  than  one  object,  and  may  therefore  take  a  plural 
verb. 


THE    AGREEMENT    OF    VERBS  169 

For  example  :— 

A  number  of  trees  have  been  cut  down  on  the  school  grounds. 
The  committee  are  not  agreed. 

But  when  the  separate  objects  are  considered  as  a  unit 
the  verb  should  be  singular. 
For  example  :— 

The  number  of  trees  remaining  is  surprisingly  large. 
The  committee  is  in  session. 

In  other  words,  if  the  various  objects  named  by 
the  collective  nouns  are  thought  of  as  individuals  the 
verb  must  be  in  the  plural  number.  In  these,  as  in 
all  other  difficult  cases  of  agreement,  you  must  decide 
whether  the  subject  really  denotes  but  one  thing  or 
more  than  one.  Hence — 

If  the  subject  is  singular  in  sense,  a  singular  verb 
must  be  used;  but  if  the  subject  is  plural  in  sense, 
a  plural  verb  must  be  used. 

4.  In  determining  the  agreement  of  the  verb,  you 
should  take  no  account  of  words  that  come  between 

te  subject  and  the  predicate. 

For  example  :— 

Every  one  of  these  men  has  (not  have)  to  work  for  a  living. 

The  labor  of  thousands  of  men  was  (not  were)  required  to 
iar  the  pyramids. 

A  young  man,  with  his  mother  and  three  brothers,  was 
'alking  down  the  street. 

The  early  study  of  arithmetic  and  geography  is  important. 


170  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

5.  As  remarked  above,  two  or  more  singular  sub- 
jects connected  by  and  commonly  take  a  plural  verb. 
But  when  the  subjects  are  modified  by  each  or  every 
the  verb  is  singular.  For  example  :— 

Each  town  and  city  throughout  the  country  has  to  meet 
this  question. 

Every  tree  and  bush  was  levelled  to  the  ground. 

Exercise  177 

Fill  the  blanks  with  verb-forms  of  the  proper  number,  and  in 
every  case  explain  why  the  verb  is  in  the  singular  or  plural: — 

1.  A  man  and  a  boy  -     picking  apples. 

2.  The  first  day  and  the  fifth  -          -  much  alike. 

3.  A  man  or  a  boy picking  apples  in  our  orchard. 

4.  Neither  running  nor  dancing  -  -  permitted. 

5.  Tom  and  Arthur together  in  the  hall. 

6.  Either  the  work  or  the  worry more  than  he  could 

stand. 

7.  Our  football  team  —       -  very  good  this  year. 

8.  The  entire  company  —        -  here. 

9.  All  the  company  -  -  here. 

10.  His  family  -          -  at  the  seashore  all  summer. 

11.  That  handsome  pair  of  horses to  my  uncle. 

12.  The  committee agreed. 

13.  A  regiment marching  through  the  street. 

14.  The  band -  playing. 

15.  A  raft  and  a  sailboat in  sight. 

16.  Your  knowledge  of  language  and  grammar  

increasing. 


THE    INFINITIVE  171 

Exercise  178 

Fill  the  blanks  with  verbs  of  proper  number,  and  in  every  case 
explain  why  the  verb  is  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  form:— 

1.  In  Africa  the  summers -  very  hot. 

2.  Tropical  countries  -    many  strange  plants  and 

animals. 

3.  One  of  the  strangest  animals  I ever  seen 

the  ant-eater. 

4.  He  -         -  a  long,  sticky  tongue  with  which  he 

the  ants. 

5.  I  -          -  not  know  how  many  years  he . 

6.  Some  other  tropical  animals  -          -  of  enormous  size. 

7.  Last  October  we at  the  menagerie. 

8.  We  -          -  interested  to  see  how  the  lions  —      — . 

9.  They  -          -  in  a  great  cage  with  strong  iron  bars. 
10.  I  -  -  not  afraid,  but  we  -  -  as  well  satisfied 

fhen  we —  on  our  way  home  again. 


CHAPTER    LXIV 

VERBAL  NOUNS 
THE  INFINITIVE 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  verb  as  that  part 
)/  the  sentence  which  makes  an  assertion  about  the 
subject.  But  there  are  some  verb-forms  that  do  not 
assert  action  or  being.  They  merely  name  it.  These 
verb-forms  are  the  Infinitive  and  the  Participle.  Let  us 
first  give  our  attention  to  the  Infinitive. 


172  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

1.  The  captain  wishes  to  reach  the  harbor  before  night. 

2.  To  work  hard  without  immediate  success  is  sometimes  dis- 
couraging. 

3.  Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 

4.  Strive  to  do  well  whatever  you  do  at  all. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  verb  wishes  is  in  the  third 
person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subject 
captain.  If  you  change  the  subject  to  they,  the  form 
of  the  verb  must  also  change  to  agree  with  they  in 
person  and  number. 

Now  examine  to  reach.  Although  it  expresses  action, 
it  does  not  assert  this  action  about  any  subject,  and 
therefore  does  not  change  its  form  to  express  person 
and  number.  Being  thus  unchanged  in  form  it  is 
called  the  Infinitive.1  It  is  like  a  verb,  however,  because 
it  takes  the  noun  harbor  as  its  object  and  is  modified 
by  the  adverbial  phrase  before  night. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  infinitive  to  work  is  like 
a  verb  because  it  is  modified  by  the  adverb  hard,  and 
the  infinitive  to  do  in  the  fourth  sentence  is  like  a  verb 
because  it  is  modified  by  the  adverb  well. 

The  infinitive,  therefore,  is  like  a  verb  because  (1)  it 
expresses  action,  (2)  (if  transitive)  it  can  take  an  object, 
and  (3)  it  can  be  modified  by  an  adverb. 

Looking  again  at  the  first  sentence,  you  will  find 
that  to  reach  is  used  like  a  noun  because  it  is  the  direct 
object  of  the  transitive  verb  wishes.  In  the  second  sen- 
tence to  work  is  used  like  a  noun  because  it  is  the 

1  From  a  Latin  word  meaning  indefinite,  unlimited. 


THE    INFINITIVE    A    VERBAL    NOUN        173 

subject  of  is.  In  the  third  sentence  to  labor  and  to  wait 
are  treated  like  nouns  because  they  are  used  as  the 
direct  objects  of  the  verb  learn.  The  infinitive  there- 
fore is  like  a  noun  because  it  can  be  used  as  the  subject 
or  the  object  of  a  verb. 

Because  the  infinitive  is  used  partly  like  a  verb  and 
partly  like  a  noun  it  is  called  a  Verbal  Noun. 

Except  when  used  with  certain  verbs  the  infinitive 
consists  of  the  infinitive  sign  to  and  the  simple  form 
of  the  verb.  The  sign  to  is  not  really  a  part  of  the 
infinitive,  but  is  a  preposition.  For  convenience,  how- 
ever, we  now  speak  of  it  as  a  part  of  the  infinitive. 

The  sign  to  is  usually  omitted  after  the  verbs  bid, 
dare,  feel,  hear,  help,  let,  make,  need,  please,  see,  watch, 
and  some  others,  when  they  are  in  the  active  voice. 

A  group  of  words  introduced  by  the  infinitive  is  called 
an  Infinitive  Phrase. 

Exercise  179 

Find  the  infinitives,  and  note  the  omission  of  the  sign  to. 
Point  out  the  infinitive  phrases: — 

Please  come  here  a  moment  and  see  this  strange  animal  run 
up  the  tree.  I  can  hear  him  claw  the  bark.  The  sound  made 
me  shiver  at  first.  Will  you  help  me  lift  this  branch?  Now 
let  it  come  down  slowly,  so  as  to  hide  us.  I  hardly  dare  stay 
here  any  longer.  You  need  not  say  you  are  not  afraid.  Can 
you  feel  the  branch  tremble  as  he  mounts  ?  What !  is  it  noth- 
ing but  a  cat?  Well,  another  time  I  hope  I  shall  be  brave 
enough  to  watch  a  cat  climb  a  tree ! 


174  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

VERBAL  NOUNS  IN  ing 

The  verbal  noun  in  ing  is  often  called  an  infinitive. 
The  term  is  accurate  enough,  but  for  our  purpose  the 
term  verbal  noun  seems  simpler.  The  verbal  noun  is 
formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb. 
The  verbal  noun  may  be  modified  by  an  adjective  or 
an  adverb.  For  example,— 

Too  rapid  working  leads  to  mistakes  (adjective). 
Working  too  rapidly  leads  to  mistakes  (adverb). 

The  verbal  noun  may  take  a  direct  or  an  indirect 
object  like  a  verb.  For  example,— 

In  painting  a  portrait  every  line  is  important. 
By  giving  him  money  we  induced  him  to  go  away. 

Exercise  180 

Find  the  infinitives  and  the  verbal  nouns  in  ing.  Point  out 
the  infinitive  phrases: — 

1.  May  I  take  the  liberty  of  inviting  you  to  visit  me  in 
Boston  ? 

2.  Before  packing  your  trunk,  go  to  see  the  tourist  agent. 

3.  He  will  be  glad  to  show  you  how  to  escape  all  annoyance 
in  crossing  the  city. 

4.  My  brother  insists  on  my  taking  a  cab  at  the  station. 

5.  His  way  of  managing  is  certainly  very  simple  and  saves 
time. 

6.  You  will  be  able  to  see  the  principal  sights  in  a  week. 

7.  Everybody  ought  to  go  at  least  once  to  the  Bunker  Hill 
Monument. 


VERBAL    NOUNS    IN    ING  175 

8.  You   should   spend   one   morning   in   visiting   the   Art 
Museum  and  the  Public  Library. 

9.  But  I  will  not  undertake  to  tell  all  that  there  is  to  see. 

Exercise  181 

From  the  following-  verbs  form  the  infinitives  and  verbal  nouns 
in  ing.  Use  five  of  them  as  subjects  of  verbs;  five  as  objects  of 
verbs : — 

Promise,  love,  rise,  grow,  write,  walk,  enjoy,  fish,  run,  read, 
speak, .eat,  work,  seek,  find,  whistle,  make,  spend,  catch,  spring, 
jump,  know,  sing,  freeze,  wash. 

Exercise  182 

Write  the  verbal  nouns  in  ing  derived  from  the  following 
verbs :— 

Forget,  forsake,  freeze,  have,  heave,  hide,  keep,  knit,  leave, 
let,  lie,  lose,  pay,  pen,  put,  rid,  run,  seethe,  sell,  shape,  shave, 
shine,  shoe. 

Exercise  183 

Fill  out  the  blanks  with  infinitives  or  with  verbal  nouns  in 

1.  I  had  no  opportunity  -      him. 

2.  When  he  returns  I  shall  hope -  him. 

3.  The  visitor  began  —        -  with  his  fingers  on  the  table. 

4.  I  am  obliged  -          -  the  train  at  once. 

5.  I  dislike  here  without  anything  -    . 

6.  We  prefer  -          -  to  the  station. 

7.  But  we  do  not  refuse  -         —  with  you. 

8.  He  is  accustomed  -          -  when  the  weather  is  good. 


176  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

9.   The   clouds  made  it  difficult  -  -  the  top  of  the 

mountain. 

10.  Most  of  us  like  -  -  things  in  order. 

11.  The  train  arrived  too  late  for  me  —          -  the  steamer. 

12.  I  am  sorry  -          -  that  I  must  stay  here  another  week. 

In  many  cases  there  is  little  to  choose  between  the  infinitive 
and  the  verbal  noun  in  ing  as  a  means  of  expression.  For 
example,  "  Most  people  dislike  to  work  (working)  in  the 
dark."  Sometimes,  however,  only  one  of  these  forms  of  ex- 
pression is  possible.  For  instance,  "  I  recollect  seeing  that 
man  a  year  ago,"  but  not,  "  I  recollect  to  see  that  man  a 


year  ago." 


Exercise  184 


Change  the  infinitives  to  verbal  nouns  in  ing,  and  the  verbal 
nouns  in  ing  to  infinitives:— 

1.  I  should  like  to  learn  another  trade. 

2.  His  chief  occupation  was  to  imitate  the  birds. 

3.  We  intend  to  build  a  new  house. 

4.  To  spend  money  wisely  is  not  always  easy. 

5.  To  find  good  illustrations  for  this  exercise  requires  time. 

6.  The  workmen  began  to  cut  down  the  trees  this  morning. 

7.  He  likes  working  as  much  as  playing. 

8.  In  that  country  riding  on  horseback  is  harder  than 
going  afoot. 

9.  Many    people    dislike    attending    to    business    in    hot 
weather. 

10.  Reading  aloud  is  sometimes  less  tiresome  than  listening 
to  others. 


THE    INFINITIVE  177 

VARIOUS  USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

We  have  found  (p.  173)  that  the  infinitive  may  be 
used  as  a  noun  and  may  be  the  subject  or  the  object 
of  a  verb.  The  infinitive  may  also  be  used  (1)  as 
a  predicate  noun,  (2)  as  a  complement,  (3)  as  an 
adjective,  (4)  as  an  adverb,  and  (5)  in  an  absolute 
construction. 

1.  The  infinitive  as  a  predicate  noun. 
His  greatest  desife  was  to  go  to  Europe. 

2.  The  infinitive  as  a  complement.1 

He  might  go  now. 

We  used  to  attend  the  concerts  in  Berlin. 

I  am  compelled  to  think  so. 

3.  The  infinitive  as  an  adjective. 

There  is  always  some  sweeping  to  do. 
He  has  no  money  to  waste. 
There  is  a  lesson  to  learn. 

4.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adverb. 
(1.)   To  modify  verbs. 

We  went  to  see  the  pictures. 

(2.)  To  modify  adjectives. 

I  am  unwilling  to  give  anything. 

He  is  ready  to  go. 

This  apple  is  too  sour  to  eat. 

1  See  page  231. 


178  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

(3.)  To  modify  an  adverb. 

He  is  rich  enough  to  build  a  large  house. 

5.  The  infinitive  in  the  absolute  construction.  Some- 
times the  infinitive  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  as— 

To  tell  the  truth,  the  company  is  not  very  prosperous. 

An  infinitive  used  in  this  way  is  said  to  be  used 
absolutely. 

The  infinitive  preceded  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective 
case  may  be  used  after  many  verbs.  Such  an  infinitive  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  clause.  For  example  we  may  say,  "  We  expected  him  to 
come  last  evening,"  or,  "We  expected  that  he  would  come  last  even- 
ing." Him  is  here  said  to  be  the  subject  of  the  infinitive,  though 
of  course  the  infinitive  never  changes  its  form  to  agree  with  any 
word.  See  page  172. 

NOTE. — Some  of  the  more  difficult  uses  of  the  infinitive  are  purposely 
omitted. 

Exercise  185 

Explain  how  each  infinitive  and  verbal  noun  in  ing  in  Exer- 
cise 184  resembles  a  verb  and  how  each  resembles  a  noun. 

CHAPTER    LXV 

THE   PARTICIPLE   A   VERBAL  ADJECTIVE 

A  verb-form  that  in  appearance  is  exactly  like  the 
verbal  noun  in  ing  behaves  very  differently  in  actual 
use. 

Examine  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 


THE    PARTICIPLE    A    VERBAL    ADJECTIVE  179 

1 .  We  saw  men  running  rapidly  along  the  shore. 

2.  The  sailors  soon  left  their  boats  anchored  in  the  harbor. 

3.  We  observed  a  boy  sitting  on  the  sand  and  eagerly  read- 
ing "  Robinson  Crusoe." 

In  the  first  sentence  running  is  a  verb-form,  and  is 
like  a  verb  because  it  expresses  action.  It  is  also  modi- 
fied by  the  adverb  rapidly  and  by  the  adverbial  phrase 
along  the  shore.  But  it  is  unlike  a  verb  because  it 
has  no  subject.  We  know  that  the  verb  in  the  sentence 
is  saiv  because  it  makes  an  assertion  about  its  subject 
we.  But  running,  although  it  is  derived  from  the  verb 
run  and  expresses  action,  makes  no  assertion  about  any 
subject.  Moreover,  it  is  used  like  an  adjective  in  de- 
scribing the  noun  men. 

In  the  second  sentence  anchored  is  a  verb-form  de- 
rived from  the  verb  anchor,  and  is  modified  by  the 
adverbial  phrase  in  the  harbor.  But  since  it  describes 
the  noun  boats  it  has  also  the  force  of  an  adjective. 

In  what  respect  is  sitting  like  a  verb!  In  what 
respect  is  it  like  an  adjective!  What  adverb  modi- 
fies reading?  What  noun  is  its  object! 

From  these  examples  we  see  that  these  italicized 
words  resemble  both  verbs  and  adjectives. 

We  have,  then,  the  definition:— 

A  verb-form  that  is  used  partly  like  a  verb  and  partly 
like  an  adjective  is  called  a  Participle. 

There  are  two  simple  participles,  the  Present  Participle 
and  the  Past  Participle. 

The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  as  incomplete. 


180  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

It  is  sometimes  called  the  Imperfect  Participle  because 
it  refers  to  unfinished  action. 

The  Past  Participle  denotes  action  that  is  past  or  com- 
plete. 

It  is  sometimes  called  the  Perfect  Participle  because 
it  refers  to  complete  action. 

Besides  the  two  simple  participles  there  are  three 
compound  participles.  They  are  formed  by  combining 
a  past  participle  with  being,  having,  or  having  been; 
as,  having  moved,  being  moved,  or  having  been  moved. 

Participles  formed  with  being  and  having  been  are  found  only  in 
the  passive  voice,  and  do  not  belong  to  intransitive  verbs. 

A  group  of  words  introduced  by  a  participle  is  called  a 
Participial  Phrase. 

As  you  may  observe  in  Exercise  187,  participial  phrases  are 
often  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more  commas. 

Exercise  186 
Form  all  the  participles  from  the  following  verbs  :— 

Sell,  build,  offer,  use,  carry,  give,  hold,  call,  find,  take, 
feel,  slay,  swell,  glow,  warm,  flush,  change,  tremble,  shake, 
heave,  pant,  cut,  beat,  melt,  turn,  touch,  kindle,  sting,  quicken, 
raise,  sharpen,  stun,  rivet,  flash,  foam. 

Exercise  187 

Why  are  the  words  in  italics  participles  ?  Indicate  clearly 
how  they  are  like  verbs  and  how  like  adjectives: — 

1.  Dover  has  a  harbor  protected  by  a  breakwater. 

2.  Having  already  waited  an  hour,  Danton  sat  drumming 
his  fingers  on  the  table. 


PARTICIPIAL   PHRASES  181 

3.  A  little  brook,  glancing  in  the  sunshine,  ran  winding 
through  the  meadow. 

4.  Rustling  in  the  breeze,  the  leaves  in  the  high  branches 
seemed  to  whisper  a  welcome. 

5.  Propped  against  a  tree,  Manton  swung  his  lantern  and 
called  for  help. 

6.  The  deer  ran   through  the  water  and,  facing  about, 
dashed  off  at  full  speed. 

7.  One  day  Nelson,  having  secured  a  quantity  of  corn  to 
grind  and  knowing  that  the  roads  were  bad,  set  out  at  sunrise. 

8.  The  entire  party,  consisting  of  thirty  persons,  made  the 
journey  in  four  days. 

9.  Marching  to  music,  the  procession  entered  the   great 
church. 

10.  The  hyenas  and  jackals  fought  constantly,  growling, 
laughing,  chattering,  and  howling  without  intermission. 

11.  Next  morning  we  saw  a  lion  dragging  a  heavy  load  up 
the  river  bank. 

12.  Continuing  our  advance,  we  presently  heard  dogs  bark- 
ing. 

13.  My  followers  were  glad  to  see  me  returning. 

14.  I  had  lain  watching  the  animals  for  four  hours. 

15.  Claude  stood  looking  at  the  floor. 

Exercise  188 
What  are  the  participial  phrases  in  the  preceding  exercise? 


• 


Exercise  189 

Point  out  the  participles,  and  tell  in  every  case  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  the  participle  modifies:— 


182  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Rising  with  a  sudden  movement,  the  old  boatman  stood 
watching  the  sunset.  Far  in  the  distance  lay  the  river  winding 
until  it  lost  itself  among  the  hills.  Before  him  ran  troops  of 
children,  shouting  and  laughing  as  they  played.  But  he  heard 
them  not.  His  thoughts  dwelt  on  a  day  long  past  when  he  came 
home,  leading  his  bride  to  the  very  door  where  he  now  stood. 
He  looked  about  the  little  cottage.  There  was  the  old  clock 
still  ticking  busily  that  she  used  to  wind.  There  was  the  old 
armchair  where  she  used  to  sit  knitting,  knitting.  Every  ob- 
ject reminded  him  of  the  early  years  when  he  was  a  young 
giant,  towering  head  and  shoulders  above  his  fellows  and  the 
envy  of  all  who  knew  him.  "  No,  I'll  not  think  of  those  years," 
said  he,  brushing  a  tear  from  his  eye.  Then,  whistling  for  his 
dog,  he  strode  down  the  hill  to  the  river. 

Exercise  190 

What  are  the  participial  phrases  in  the  preceding  exercise 
which  are  set  off  by  commas]  Write  ten  participial  phrases. 


CHAPTER    LXVI 

THE   VERBAL    NOUN    AND    THE    PARTICIPLE 

We  must  now  distinguish  more  carefully  the  verbal 
noun  in  ing  from  the  participle  in  ing. 
Examine  closely  the  italicized  words: — 

1.  Rowing  is  good  exercise. 

£.  Do  you  like  rowing? 

3.  After  rowing  our  boat  for  a  mile  we  began  to  fish. 

4.  Our  friend  saw  us  rowing  down  stream. 


VERBAL  NOUNS  AND  PARTICIPLES   183 

In  the  first  example  rowing  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  is,  and  is  therefore  a  noun.  In  the  second  exam- 
ple it  is  also  a  noun  used  as  the  object  of  the  verb  do 
like.  In  the  third  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition 
after.  But  in  the  fourth  it  is  an  adjective  modifying 
the  pronoun  us.  Hence— 

To  distinguish  a  verbal  noun  in  ing  from  a  partici- 
ple in  ing,  see  whether  the  word  is  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb,  as  a  predicate  nominative,  as  the  object  of 
a  verb  or  of  a  preposition,  or  whether  it  is  used  as  an 
adjective. 

Exercise  191 

Select  all  the  participles  and  the  verbal  nouns  in  ing.  Ex- 
plain the  case  of  the  verbal  nonns  in  ing,  and  tell  what  nouns 
or  pronouns  the  participles  modify.  What  objects  and  adverbial 
modifiers  have  the  verbal  nouns  and  the  participles? 

1.  A  bullet  sped  past,  barely  missing  Kenyon's  ear. 

2.  After  arriving  in  London  you  will  have  little  time  for 
writing. 

3.  I  can't  help  bringing  in  some  mud  from  the  street. 

4.  Covering  his  face  with  his  hand,  he  marched  out. 

5.  By  covering  his  face  he  could  remain  undiscovered. 

6.  Gerson  gave  Manly  a  sudden  push  that  sent  the  books 
flying  to  the  floor. 

7.  "  Come  here,"  said  the  master,  addressing  Gerson. 

8.  An  hour  was  occupied  in  preparing  the  lesson. 

9.  Suiting  the  action  to  the  word,  the  pilot  cut  the  rope. 
10.  He  now  steered  more  carefully,  studying  the  chart  and 

watching  the  compass  in  the  box  before  him. 


184  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

11.  There  was  a  strong  feeling  against  buying  and  selling 
votes. 

12.  On  examining  the  wound  the  surgeon  found  the  injury 
to  be  slight. 

13.  Leaning  back  contentedly,  he  smiled  at  the  new  arrival. 

14.  The  man  lay  groaning  on  the  grass. 

15.  The  art  of  entertaining  is  difficult. 

Exercise  192,  for  Review 

Write  ten  participial  phrases.  Write  ten  sentences, 
each  containing  participial  phrases.  Explain  the  use 
of  each  phrase. 

Exercise  193,  for  Review 

What  is  an  infinitive  phrase?  Write  ten  such 
phrases.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  an  in- 
finitive phrase  used  as  a  noun;  five  sentences,  each 
containing  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as  an  adjective; 
and  five,  each  containing  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as 
an  adverb. 

Exercise  194,  for  Review 

(What  is  a  prepositional  phrase?  Write  ten  such 
phrases.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a 
prepositional  phrase  used  as  an  adjective;  also  ten 
sentences,  each  containing  a  prepositional  phrase  used 
as  an  adverb. 

Remember  that  in  form  phrases  are  divided  into  prepositional 
phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  and  participial  phrases.  In  use,  they 
may  be  noun-phrases,  adjective  phrases,  or  adverbial  phrases. 


THE    PAST    TENSE    OF    WEAK    VERBS      185 
CHAPTER    LXVII 

STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 

Verbs  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes  accord- 
ing to  the  way  in  which  they  form  their  past  tense. 
We  consider  first  the  most  common  method. 

WEAK  VERBS 

Compare  the  italicized  verb-forms  in  the  following 
sentences  :— 

PRESENT    TENSE  PAST    TENSE  PAST    PARTICIPLE 

They  fish  now.      They  fished  yesterday.  They  have  fished. 
They  work  now.    They  worked  yesterday.  They  have  worked. 
They  hunt  now.    They  hunted  yesterday.  They  have  hunted. 

Observe  that  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle 
of  these  verbs  are  exactly  the  same,  and  that  each  is 
formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

If  for  the  verbs  fish,  work,  hunt,  the  verbs  love,  smile, 
or  hope  be  substituted — all  of  which  end  in  e — the  past 
tense  and  the  past  participle  will  be  formed  by  adding 
only  d  to  the  present. 

Some  verbs,  like  feel,  sleep,  add  t  instead  of  ed  or 
d  to  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle. 

Most  verbs  form  the  past  tense  by  adding  the  endings  ed, 
d,  or  t  to  the  present.  Such  verbs  are  called  Weak  Verbs. 
These  verbs  are  very  numerous,  and,  largely  for  that 
reason,  are  often  called  Regular  Verbs.  This  name  is, 
however,  not  very  accurate. 


186  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  195 

Write  in  the  third  person  plural  the  present  tense  and  the 
past  tense  of  the  following  verbs  :— 

Sharpen,  stir,  arouse,  please,  suffer,  grieve,  mourn,  enjoy, 
bless,  charm,  create,  afford,  delight,  bewitch,  flatter,  treat, 
amuse,  satisfy,  attract,  interest,  provide,  comfort,  cause,  sweep, 
bend,  bereave,  dwell,  have,  hear,  send. 

STRONG  VERBS 

There  is  another  group  of  verbs,  much  smaller  in 
number  yet  very  frequently  in  use,  that  form  the  past 
tense  in  another  way.  Note  the  following  verbs : — 

PRESENT    TENSE  PAST    TENSE  PAST    PARTICIPLE 

They  see  now.  They  saw  yesterday.       They  have  seen. 

They  run  now.  They  ran  yesterday.        They  have  run. 

They  sing  now.  They  sang  yesterday.      They  have  sung. 

They  write  now.  They  wrote  yesterday.  They  have  written. 

Here  we  see  that  the  past  tense  is  formed,  not  by 
adding  ed,  d,  or  t  to  the  present,  but  by  making  a 
change  in  the  vowel  of  the  present.  Such  verbs  are 
called  Strong  Verbs. 

A  Strong  Verb  forms  its  past  tense,  not  by  adding  an 
ending  to  the  present,  but  by  changing  its  vowel. 

Since  less  than  a  hundred  strong  verbs  are  now  in  use  (if  no 
account  is  taken  of  compounds)  they  are  often  called  Irregular 
Verbs.  They  are,  however,  as  regular  in  their  way  as  the  more 
numerous  weak  verbs.  It  is  important  to  note  that  many  of  the 
verbs  that  add  the  endings  ed,  d,  or  t,  show  some  irregularity. 


STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS  187 

Some  verbs  are  partly  strong  and  partly  weak.  In  the  Appen- 
dix you  will  find  a  list  of  verbs  presenting  various  irregularities. 
In  Chapter  LXXIV  special  attention  is  called  to  some  that  are 
often  misused  and  that  require  careful  study. 

As  for  the  terms  Strong  and  Weak,  which  are  now  in  general 
use,  we  may  in  a  sense  say  that  the  Strong  Verbs  are  strong 
enough  to  form  their  past  tense  without  the  help  of  the  endings 
ed,  d,  or  t,  whereas  the  Weak  Verbs  require  the  help  of  these 
endings  in  forming  the  past  tense.  This  explanation  must,  how- 
ever, be  taken  only  as  a  convenient  aid  to  your  memory.  A  full 
explanation  of  the  differences  between  the  two  kinds  of  verbs  is 
too  difficult  to  be  presented  here. 

By  some  grammarians  the  weak  verbs  are  called  verbs  of  the 
New  Conjugation,  since  they  are  largely  derived  from  other 
words,  such  as  nouns,  adjectives,  and  so  forth ;  a»d  the  strong 
verbs  are  called  verbs  of  the  Old  Conjugation.  The  names  are 
not  a  matter  of  much  importance,  but  the  distinction  between  the 
two  great  classes  of  verbs  is  something  that  deserves  the  most 
careful  attention. 

Exercise  196 

Write  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  past  participle 
of  the  following  verbs,  and  tell  whether  they  are  strong  or  weak : — 

Soothe,  soften,  chew,  sing,  hold,  shout,  split,  roar,  bathe, 
shake,  dance,  throw,  fret,  follow,  play,  hope,  feel,  trust,  draw, 
slay,  swear,  tread,  rise. 

NOTE. — In  the  preparation  of  this  and  similar  exercises  the  list  of 
verbs  in  the  Appendix  should  be  consulted. 


188  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    LXVIII 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS  OF   VERBS 

We  have  just  seen  that  strong  verbs  form  their  past 
tense  in  one  way  and  weak  verbs  in  another.  In  most 
verbs  the  change  from  the  present  to  the  past  tense  is 
indicated  by  a  change  in  the  form.  But  this  is  not  true 
of  any  other  tense.  The  other  tenses  are  formed  by 
combining  auxiliaries  with  the  infinitive l  or  the  past 
participle. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  before  we  can  form  the 
various  tenses  of  a  verb  we  must  know  the  present 
tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  past  participle.  These 
three  forms  are  called  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 

Exercise  197 
Write  the  principal  parts  of:— 

Give,  hold,  look,  tell,  run,  string,  fight,  stand,  strike,  burst, 
cry,  ride,  leap,  wish,  yearn,  raise,  rise,  quench,  spoil. 

The  past  participle  of  weak  verbs  has  the  same  form 
as  the  past  tense.  The  past  participle  of  a  strong  verb 
is  that  simple  verb-form  that  can  be  combined  with 
some  form  of  have  or  be  to  make  a  verb-phrase.  For 
example: — has  fallen,  have  ridden,  was  sunk,  was 
stolen,  were  shown. 

1  The  form  of  the  infinitive  is  always  the  same  as  that  of  the  present 
indicative. 


PRESENT,    PAST,    AND    FUTURE    TENSES    189 

No  general  rule  can  be  given  that  will  cover  all  the  methods  of 
forming  the  past  participle  of  strong  verbs.  In  Old  English  the 
past  participle  of  all  strong  verbs  had  the  ending  n  or  en,  but  this 
ending  is  retained  by  only  about  half  of  the  surviving  strong  verbs. 

Exercise  198 

Write  the  proper  form  of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  exercise 
to  be  used  with  he  has. 

Exercise  199 
Write  the  past  tense  of  the  following  verbs  :— 

Arise,  begin,  bite,  blow,  break,  choose,  draw,  drink,  fall,  fly, 
flee,  forget,  grow,  hide,  lie,  ride,  rise,  see,  shake,  show,  sink, 
suit,  sow,  steal,  strew,  swell,  swim,  take,  write. 


CHAPTER    LXIX 

FORMS  OF   THE    PRESENT,    PAST,   AND    FUTURE  TENSES 

As  was  explained  in  an  earlier  chapter  (p.  160), 
all  action  must  take  place  in  present,  past,  or  future 
time.  In  every  case  the  form  of  the  verb  depends 
upon  the  time  referred  to.  For  the  present  and  the 
past  tenses  we  use  simple  forms  of  the  verb,  but  for  the 
future  we  employ  a  verb-plirase  made  up  of  shall  or  will 
and  the  infinitive  of  a  verb  without  the  sign  to. 

Let  us  take  the  verb  tell  and  see  how  we  form  the 
various  numbers  and  persons  of  the  present,  past,  and 
future  tenses. 

Using  the  personal  pronouns  as  subjects,  we  arrange 
the  forms  as  follows: — 


190  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  tell  1.  We  tell 

2.  You  tell  (thou  tellest)  2.   You  tell 

3.  Retells  3.  They  tell 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  told  1.  We  told 

2.  You  told  (thou  toldest)  2.  You  told 

3.  He  told  3.  They  told 

Future  Tense 

1.  I  shall  tell  1.  We  shall  tell 

2.  You  will  tell  (thou  wilt  tell)  2.  You  will  tell 

3.  He  will  tell  3.  They  will  tell 

CHAPTER    LXX 

SHALL    AND    WILL 

The  future  tense,  as  already  noted,  consists  of  a 
verb-phrase  formed  by  uniting  shall  or  will  with  the 
infinitive  without  the  sign  to.  To  express  simple  future 
time  shall  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the 
second  and  third  persons. 

Simple  Future 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  shall  go  1.  We  shall  go 

2.  You  will  go  (thou  wilt  go)  2.  You  will  go 

3.  He  will  go  3.  They  will  go 


USE    OF    SHALL    AND    WILL 


191 


If  will  takes  the  place  of  shall  in  the  first  person, 
and  shall  the  place  of  will  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons, we  no  longer  have  simple  future  expressed.  For 
example  :— 

{I  promise  to  go 
or 
I  am  determined  to  go. 
You  shall  go          "         that  the  speaker  puts  upon  you  the 

necessity  of  going. 

He  shall  go  "         that  the  speaker  puts  upon  him  the 

necessity  of  going. 

In  questions  in  the  first  person  shall  is  used,  what- 
ever answer  is  expected.  In  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons, if  shall  or  will  is  used  in  the  question,  shall  or  will 
is  expected  in  the  answer.  Note  the  illustrations : — 

Shall  you  go  ?      Answer  expected, —      7  shall  go  (7  shall  not 


Will  you  go  ? 
Shall  he  go  ? 
Will  he  go? 


/  will  go  (I  will  not 


66  66 


He  shall  go  (He  shall 

not  go). 
He   will  go  (He   will 

not  go). 


Exercise  WO 


Show  the  difference  in  meaning  caused  by  using  shall  or  will 
in  each  sentence:— 

1.  The  orator  will  (shall)  address  us. 

2.  I  shall  (will)  start  on  the  early  train. 


192  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

3.  I  will  (shall)  fall. 

4.  No  one  shall  (will)  help  me. 

5.  We  will  (shall)  meet  you  at  the  train. 

6.  The  train  will  (shall)  arrive  at  ten  o'clock. 

7.  Will  (shall)  you  meet  him? 

8.  You  shall  (will)  meet  him. 

9.  George  shall  (will)  go  with  me. 

10.  The  concert  will  (shall)  begin  promptly  at  eight  o'clock. 

11.  Where  shall  (will)  we  find  the  entrance  to  the  building? 

12.  Shall  (will)  we  have  dinner  now? 

13.  Shall  (will)  I  wear  my  thick  coat? 

14.  You  will  (shall)  wear  what  you  think  best. 

15.  Will  (shall)  you  lend  me  a  dollar  for  a  few  hours? 

16.  I  will  (shall)  pay  it  back  this  evening. 

17.  We  shall  (will)  be  in  New  York  three  weeks. 

18.  Mary  shall  (will)  stay  at  home. 

19.  The  celebration  will  (shall)  be  general  throughout  the 
country. 

20.  Shall  (will)  we  call  a  carriage? 

Exercise  Wl 

Fill  the  blanks  with  shall  or  will,  according  to  the  sense. 
Where  either  shall  or  will  can  be  used,  explain  the  difference 
in  meaning: — 

1.  you  come  in? 

2.  Father return  in  a  moment. 

3.  He be  glad  to  see  you. 

%    We not  stay  in  the  room  after  he  returns. 

5.  You not  disturb  us. 

Qt  I ask  Uncle's  advice. 


SHALL    AND    WILL  193 

7.  Time  -  show  who  is  right. 

8.  He  —      -  pay  the  bill  next  week. 

9.  No  one  -  look  for  you  in  London. 

10.  How  -  your  brother  like  to  have  you  there? 

11.  You  -  arrive  too  late  to  meet  him. 

12.  We  --  start  to-morrow. 

13.  -  we  find  a  carriage  at  the  station? 

14.  When  -  the  train  start? 

15.  When  -  we  arrive  at  Washington? 

16.  -  -  Congress  be  in  session? 

-  enjoy  seeing  the  government  buildings. 
you  visit  us  while  we  are  there? 

-  come  we  --  meet  you  at  the  train. 
not  remain  there  more  than  three  months. 


Exercise 
Select  the  verbs.    In  what  tense  is  each? 

This  letter  will  help  you  to  follow  a  part  of  my  movements. 
I  arrived  in  New  York  last  Tuesday  and  began  at  once  to  see 
what  I  could.  On  Wednesday  I  drove  through  the  principal 
streets  and  visited  some  of  the  most  important  buildings.  On 
Thursday  I  saw  a  great  procession,  which  filled  the  thorough- 
fares and  made  traffic  difficult  for  hours.  But  I  succeeded  in 
escaping  a  part  of  the  crowd.  I  shall  not  be  able  to  describe 
half  the  interesting  sights  I  have  seen,  but  I  will  write  a  long 
letter  in  a  day  or  two. 

I  shall  take  the  early  train  on  Monday  for  Chicago.  There 
I  shall  remain  four  days.  The  weather  will  not  be  too  warm 
in  October,  and  I  shall  be  very  comfortable.  There  will  be 


194  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

some  good  music,  and  I  shall  hear  as  much  as  I  can.     You 
will  receive  a  letter  from  me  every  few  days. 

CHAPTER    LXXI 

THE    COMPLETE   TENSES 

It  is  often  sufficient  to  express  somewhat  indefinitely 
the  time  of  an  action.  But  sometimes  we  feel  the  need 
of  being  more  exact. 

Compare  the  following  sentences  :— 

1.  They  row  the  boat.          4.  They  have  rowed  the  boat. 

2.  They  rowed  the  boat.       5.  They  had  rowed  the  boat. 

3.  They  will  row  the  boat.  6.  They  will  have  rowed  the  boat. 

In  the  first  three  sentences  the  time  of  the  rowing 
is  somewhat  indefinitely  indicated.  In  the  next  three 
sentences  the  additional  fact  that  the  rowing  is  fin- 
ished or  complete  is  indicated.  They  have  rowed  the 
boat,  but  they  are  not  rowing  it  now.  The  action  is 
complete  at  the  present  time.  We  therefore  say  that  have 
rowed  is  in  the  Present  Perfect  Tense. 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  indicates  action  completed 
at  the  present  time. 

"They  had  rowed  the  boat"  suggests  that  the  com- 
pleted act  of  rowing  was  finished,  but  at  some  past  time. 
If  we  say,  for  example,  "They  had  rowed  the  boat 
across  the  river  before  we  saw  them,"  the  verb  had 
rowed  would  indicate  that  the  rowing  was  finished  be- 
fore the  past  action  expressed  by  the  verb  saiv.  We 
therefore  say  that  had  rowed  is  in  the  Past  Perfect  Tense. 


FORMATION    OF    COMPLETE    TENSES       195 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  indicates  action  completed  at 
some  past  time. 

We  may  also  refer  to  action  that  will  be  completed 
at  some  future  time.  In  this  case  we  may  use  the 
Future  Perfect  Tense,  as  in  the  sixth  sentence. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  indicates  action  that  will  be 
completed  at  some  future  time. 

The  Present  Perfect,  the  Past  Perfect,  and  the 
Future  Perfect  are  called  Complete  Tenses  because 
they  indicate  completed  action. 


CHAPTER    LXXII 

THE    FORMATION    OF   THE   COMPLETE   TENSES 

Each  of  the  complete  tenses  is  a  verb-phrase  formed 
by  uniting  with  the  past  participle  of  the  principal  verb 
some  form  of  have.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  know 
the  various  forms  of  have  which  must  be  united  with 
the  past  participle. 

Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  have  1.  We  have 

2.  You  have  (thou  hast)  2.  You  have 
2.  He  has  3.  They  have 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  had  1.  We  had 

2.  You  had  (thou  hadst)  2.   You  had 

3.  He  had  3.  They  had 

1  Often  called  the  Pluperfect  Tense. 


196  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Future  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  shall  have  1.   We  shall  have 

2.  You  will  have  (thou  wilt  have)        2.  You  will  have 

3.  He  will  have  3.  They  will  have 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  is  formed  by  uniting  the 
past  participle  of  the  principal  verb  with  the  present  tense 
of  have;  as,  have  heard,  have  seen. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  is  formed  by  uniting  the 
past  participle  of  the  principal  verb  with  the  past  tense  of 
have;  as,  had  heard,  had  seen. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  is  formed  by  uniting  the 
past  participle  of  the  principal  verb  with  the  future  tense 
of  have;  as,  shall  or  will  have  heard,  shall  or  will  have 
seen. 

The  Future  Perfect  is  less  frequently  used  than  any  other  tense. 

Exercise  203 

Write  the  present  perfect,  the  past  perfect,  and  the  future 
perfect  of  the  following  verbs,  using  each  form  with  the  pronoun 
he  as  the  subject:— 

Arise,  begin,  bind,  bleed,  break,  bring,  buy,  drive,  find,  for- 
get, go,  grow,  hit,  know,  lose,  put,  ride,  rise,  sell,  chase. 

Exercise  204 

Fill  each  blank  with  the  three  complete  tense- forms  of  the 
rerb  suggested  for  the  sentence. 

1.  catch   The  boys a  large  string  of  fish. 

2.  mow     The  men  -          -  the  hay  in  the  meadow. 


THE    COMPLETE    TENSES  197 

3.  see  We ten  blackbirds  in  the  cornfield. 

4.  saw  Our  farm-hands  -          -  a  cord  of  wood  for  us. 

5.  buy  My  father three  new  horses. 

6.  blow  The  wind  - 

7.  bite  That  dog several  persons  to-day. 

8.  sing  The  pupils  -          -  five  songs. 

9.  shake  This  wind  -        —  all  the  apples  off  the  trees. 

10.  do        He a  great  deal  of  harm. 

11.  ride      I ten  miles. 

12.  stand  The  captain on  the  bridge  all  day. 

13.  teach    They him  arithmetic. 

14.  write    He  -         -  six  letters. 

15.  speak  Hamilton  an  hour  every  evening. 

16.  fall       Some  workmen from  a  scaffold. 

17.  grow    The  wheat several  inches  in  two  weeks. 

18.  rise       The  river  —   to  the  top  of  the  pier. 

19.  choose  General  Lawton only  the  strongest  men. 

20.  sell       The  thief  —       -  the  diamonds. 

21.  break  Our  servants all  the  best  china. 

Exercise  £05,  for  Review 

What  is  the  tense  of  every  italicized  yerl>  in  the  following 
paragraph  :— 

The  storm  yesterday  afternoon  was  very  severe.  For  several 
days  the  weather  had  been  unbearably  hot,  but  the  sky  had  re- 
mained cloudless  so  long  that  we  hardly  expected  even  a  light 
shower.  Shortly  before  three  o'clock  the  air  was  unusually 
still.  A  few  minutes  later  a  furious  wind  was  blowing.  Greenish 
yellow  clouds  hid  the  sun.  Dust  and  flying  boards  and  bricks 
filled  the  air.  Hailstones  smashed  heavy  plate-glass  windows. 


198  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

I  have  seen  several  of  the  hailstones  that  weighed  two  or  three 
ounces  each.  I  shall  not  be  able  to  estimate  closely  the  damage 
to  the  crops,  but  I  will  try  to  learn  something  to-morrow.  The 
corn  crop  will  be  very  small  in  this  region.  Wheat  suffered  a 
good  deal  but  will  probably  recover  somewhat.  Oats  will  bring 
high  prices.  I  shall  drive  about  the  neighboring  counties  in 
the  course  of  a  few  days  and  will  report  what  I  can  learn.  Will 
you  be  good  enough  to  let  me  know  what  most  interests  you? 


CHAPTER    LXXIII 

A    REVIEW 

Write  four  sentences  to  illustrate  the  difference  be- 
tween a  transitive  and  an  intransitive  verb. 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  verb  in  the 
active  voice.  Rewrite  them,  and  change  the  verb  in 
each  to  the  passive  form.  Explain  the  changes. 

Define  tense.  Write  five  sentences  to  illustrate  each 
of  the  following:  The  present  tense,  the  past  tense, 
the  future  tense. 

What  determines  the  person  and  number  of  the 
verb? 

Why  is  the  infinitive  so  named  1  In  what  respects  is 
it  used  like  a  verb  and  in  what  respects  like  a  noun? 

Why  is  thQ  participle  so  named!  In  what  respects 
is  it  used  like  a  verb  and  in  what  respect  like  an 
adjective? 

What  is  a  weak  verb?  A  strong  verb?  WTrite  the 
principal  parts  of  ten  weak  verbs ;  of  ten  strong  verbs. 


DIFFICULT    VERB-FORMS  199 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb,  and  why  are 
they  so  called? 

Explain  the  use  of  shall  and  will  in  expressing  sim- 
ple future  time.  Write  six  declarative  sentences,  each 
containing  shall  in  the  first  person.  Substitute  will 
for  shall,  and  notice  the  change  in  the  meaning.  In 
questions,  which  of  these  auxiliaries  should  be  used  in 
the  first  person!  Which  in  the  second  and  third 
persons! 

What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  pres- 
ent and  the  present  perfect  tense!  Between  the  past 
and  the  past  perfect!  Between  the  future  and  the 
future  perfect!  Why  are  the  complete  tenses  so 
named!  Use  each  of  these  tenses  in  three  sentences. 


CHAPTER    LXXIV 

DIFFICULT    VERB-FORMS 

Several  verbs  present  special  difficulties  from  the 
fact  that  one  verb-form  is  often  confused  with  another. 
You  should  carefully  learn  the  principal  parts  of  the 
verbs  commonly  misused.  In  this  chapter  a  number 
of  these  verbs  are  considered. 

Lie  AND  Lay 

Do  not  confuse  the  forms  lie  (to  lie  down)  with  lay 
(to  place). 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

lie  lay  lain 

lay  laid  laid 


200  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Remember  that  lie  (to  lie  down)  is  an  intransitive 
verb,  and  can  therefore  have  no  object,  but  that  lay 
(to  place)  requires  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Exercise  206 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  correct  form  for  lie  or 
lay,  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  He  used  to for  hours  on  the  grass. 

2.  When  I  entered  the  room  the  books on  the  floor. 

3.  The  snow -  deep  in  the  woods. 

4.  The  carpenter  -       —  his  tools  on  the  bench. 

5.  You  must  not  -    so  late  in  the  morning. 

6.  The  glossy  black  cat  -  quietly  before  the  fire. 

7.  Silently  the  clergyman -  his  hands  on  the  young 

man's  head. 

8.  The  hunter  on  the  ground,  wrapped  in  his 

blanket. 

9.  When  he  arose  he  folded  the  blanket  and  -  -  it 
beside  his  saddle. 

10.  The  clerk  stopped  writing  and -  down  his  pen. 

11.  Then  he  yawned  and  —       -  down  on  the  couch. 

12.  Bits  of  paper  -     scattered  about  the  floor. 

Sit  AND  Set 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

sit  sat  sat 

set  set  set 

Sit  is  an  intransitive  verb.    Set  is  a  transitive  verb. 


DIFFICULT    VERB-FORMS  201 

NOTE. —  We  use  the  verb  set  mirans&vely  when  we  refer  to  the  set- 
ting sun  and  say,  "The  sun  sets  "  or  "The  sun  is  setting." 

Exercise  207 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  correct  form  of  sit  or 
set,  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  A  gray -haired  old  man  in  the  corner. 

2.  His  daughter the  tea-kettle  on  the  stove. 

3.  Then  for  a  few  minutes  she  beside  her  father. 

4.  He his  worn  hat  upon  his  head. 

5.  At  noon  they down  to  a  plain  dinner. 

6.  The  boys scattered  about  the  large  hall. 

7.  The  manager  told  the  boys  to  -  on  the  front 

bench. 

8.  Five  of  them,  however, beside  the  open  windows. 

9.  Do  not on  the  wet  grass. 

10.  Please  -  -  the  plants  in  even  rows. 

11.  I  wish  that  the  agent  would his  wet  umbrella  in 

the  rack. 

12.  Will  you  —        -  down? 

13.  We  all  -          -  down. 

Seen  AND  Saw 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

see  saw  seen 

Seen  should  not  be  used  for  saw  in  the  past  tense. 
Seen  can  never  be  used  except  as  a  past  participle, 
either  alone  in  a  participial  phrase  or  in  combination 
with  some  form  of  have  or  be. 


202  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  £08 
Select  the  correct  word,  saw  or  seen,  for  the  blanks:— 

1.  I  the  train  leave  the  station. 

2.  We some  great  glaciers  in  the  Canadian  Rockies. 

3.  Have  you the  geysers  in  Yellowstone  Park? 

4.  My  brother them  last  summer. 

5.  I -  the  sun  rise  this  morning. 

6.  You  should  have  -          -  his  face. 

7.  If  you  had  only  -  -  Paris! 

8.  We  -          -  it  last  summer. 

9.  Some  people more  than  they  should. 

Ate  AND  Eaten 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

eat  ate  eaten 

Be  careful  to  use  ate  as  the  past  tense  and  eaten  as 
the  past  participle  of  the  verb  eat. 

Eat  (pronounced  et)  for  ate  and  eaten  is  common,  but  is  not  used 
by  careful  writers  and  speakers. 

Exercise  °209 
Select  the  correct  word,  ate  or  eaten,  for  the  blanks: — 

1.  The  trapper —  his  dinner  in  silence. 

2.  When  he  had  -         — ,  he  mounted  his  pony  and  rode 
away. 

3.  We our  dinner  on  the  train. 

4.  We  should  like  to  have  -  -  with  you. 

5.  The  scanty  meal  was  soon . 

6.  The  children  have all  the  fruit. 

7.  Four  beggars on  a  bench  in  the  corner. 


MOOD  203 

8.  We  -  strange  food  in  China. 

9.  One  would  think  the  drivers  might  have  -    -  their 
dinner  by  this  time. 

Took  AND  Taken 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

take  took  taken 

Exercise  210 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  you  use  took  correctly  as  the 
past  tense;  live  in  which  you  use  taken  as  the  past  participle. 

Did  AND  Done 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST   PARTICIPLE 

do  did  done 


Exercise 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  you  use  did,  and  five  in  which 
you  use  done. 

Various  other  verbs  call  for  a  word  of  caution.  Do 
not  confuse  let  and  leave;  flowed  and  floivn;  lead  and 
led;  rode  and  ridden;  drank  and  drunk;  came  and 
come;  shook  and  shaken;  spoke  and  spoken;  stole  and 
stolen;  swam  and  swum. 

CHAPTER    LXXV 

MOOD 

Note  the  various  ways  in  which  the  verbs  are  used 
in  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  The  tourist  was  in  Yellowstone  Park. 
Here  the  verb  was  asserts  a  fact. 


204  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

2.  Was  the  tourist  in  Yellowstone  Park? 
Here  the  verb  ivas  asks  a  question. 

3.  If  the  tourist  were  in  Yellowstone  Park  he  could  see  the 
geysers. 

The  verb  in  this  case  does  not  assert  a  fact  but  a 
condition  contrary  to  fact.  The  tourist  is  not  in  Yellow- 
stone Park,  and  therefore  he  cannot  see  the  geysers. 

4.  Oh  !    that  Lincoln  were  here  to-day  ! 

But  Lincoln  is  not  here,  and  the  verb  makes  it  clear 
that  he  is  not.  Were  expresses  in  this  case  not  a  fact, 
but  a  mere  wish. 

5.  Go  to  Yellowstone  Park. 

The  verb  go  expresses  a  command. 

Thus  we  see  that  in  making  an  assertion  the  verb 
does  not  always  make  it  in  the  same  way.  As  you 
see  in  the  examples,  the  thought  may  be  presented 
(1)  as  a  fact;  (2)  as  a  question;  (3)  as  something  which 
is  not  a  fact,  but  is  merely  thought  of;  (4)  as  a  wish; 
and  (5)  as  a  command. 

The  mode  or  manner  in  which  the  verb  makes  an  as- 
sertion or  presents  a  thought  is  called  Mood. 

In  English  there  are  three  Moods :  the  Indicative,  the 
Imperative,  and  the  Subjunctive. 

The  older  grammarians  added  a  fourth  mood,  the  Potential,,  but 
the  term  Potential  Mood  is  not  used  by  the  best  modern  gram- 


THE    INDICATIVE    MOOD  205 

marians.  Later  (p.  233),  we  shall  discuss  potential  verb-phrases, 
all  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  either  indicative  verb-phrases  or 
subjunctive  verb-phrases. 

NOTE. — It  is  obviously  out  of  place  to  discuss  in  a  book  of  this  char- 
acter the  subtleties  involved  in  determining  the  mood  of  some  of  the  more 
difficult  verb-phrases. 


CHAPTER    LXXVI 

THE   INDICATIVE  AND   THE    IMPERATIVE   MOODS 
THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD 

The  Indicative  Mood  is  used  to  assert  a  fact  or  to  ask  a 
question. 

Exercise 


Select  the  verbs  used  to  assert  facts.     In  what  mood,  tense, 
person,  and  number  is  each  ? 

1.  The  driver  stopped  at  the  corner  of  the  street. 

2.  All  the  crowd  turned  to  look  at  him. 

3.  "  That  is  a  tired-looking  horse,"  said  one. 

4.  "  He  has  come  a  long  distance,"  remarked  another. 

5.  "  A  policeman  will  be  here  soon,"  added  a  third. 

6.  Then  one  man,  bolder  than  the  rest,  called  out,  "  You 
are  stopping  at  the  wrong  place." 

7.  "  Your  horse  needs  a  rest." 

8.  "  Yes,"  replied  the  driver,  "  we  have  hardly  rested  for 
two  days." 

9.  "  The    country    in    my    district    has    suffered    from 
drought." 

10.  "  The  streams  and  wells  are  dry." 


206  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

11.  "  No  one  has  ever  known  such  a  summer  in  our  region." 

12.  "  We  expect  every  crop  to  be  a  failure." 

13.  "  Many  of  the  farmers  are  returning  to  the  East." 

14.  At  this  recital  of  troubles  every  one  felt  that  he  had 
misjudged  the  dusty  driver. 


Exercise 
Select  the  verbs  used  to  ask  questions.    In  what  tense  is  each  1 

"  Where  have  you  been,  little  man  ?  "  asked  the  kindly  woman 
at  the  door.  "Are  you  lost?  Have  you  had  any  dinner?" 
The  boy  shook  his  head.  "  Come  in,  then,"  said  she.  "  Where 
do  you  live?  In  the  country?"  "Yes."  "How  old  are 
you?  "  "  Ten  years  old."  "  Did  you  carry  that  heavy  bundle 
yourself?  Have  you  any  friends  in  New  York?  What  do 
you  expect  to  do  there?  Can  you  read?  Have  you  been  five 
years  at  school,  did  you  say?  Should  you  like  to  stay  here?  " 
The  boy  nodded.  "  What  started  you  on  the  way  to  the  city  ? 
You  wanted  work?  What  sort  of  work  can  a  little  mite  like 
you  do?  " 

Exercise  214 
Use  each  verb  in  a  question:— 

Wish,  surprise,  admire,  forget,  expect,  enjoy,  excuse,  thank, 
forgive,  command,  approve,  hear,  spend,  dare,  shoot,  tell,  send, 
leave,  give,  speak,  whisper,  conceal,  mention,  hide,  catch,  follow. 

The  Indicative  Mood  has  six  tenses,  the  Present,  the 
Past,  the  Future,  the  Present  Perfect,  the  Past  Perfect, 
and  the  Future  Perfect. 


THE    MOOD    OF    COMMAND  207 

THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  make  a  request  or  to 
express  a  command.  You  may,  for  example,  order  or 
command  your  dog,  as  follows:  "Come  here,  Rover. 
Jump  over  the  fence.  Chase  the  cow  out  of  the  yard. 
Be  quick  about  it.  Now  lie  down." 

In  each  of  these  cases  a  verb  is  used  to  express  a 
command.  No  subject  is  expressed,  but  the  subject 
you  is  implied.  We  may  therefore  say  that  the  sub- 
ject you  is  understood.  Sometimes,  however,  in  col- 
loquial language,  you  is  expressed  when  the  speaker 
wishes  to  be  especially  emphatic;  as,  "You  do  as  you 
are  told.  You  go  at  once.  You  keep  quiet,  perfectly 
quiet." 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  to  express  a  command  or 
make  a  request. 

Direct  commands  are  of  course  addressed  to  some 
one,  and  hence  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person.  In 
bidding  others  do  something  we  often  include  our- 
selves; as,  for  example,  "Let  us  go  now,"  in  which  let 
is  imperative,  us  is  the  direct  object,  and  go  is  an 
infinitive  depending  upon  let.  The  Imperative  Mood 
is  always  in  the  present  tense. 

Requests  or  entreaties  are  also  frequently  expressed 
by  the  indicative  in  the  form  of  a  question.  For 
example  :— 

Will  you  kindly  hand  me  that  book  ? 
Will  you  help  me  raise  this  window  ? 


208  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

In  cases  where  there  is  no  doubt  that  an  order  will 
be  obeyed  the  command  is  sometimes  expressed  by 
the  future  indicative  in  the  form  of  an  assertion  :— 

You  will  take  five  pages  for  your  next  lesson. 
Mr.  Simmons,  you  will  detail  ten  men  and  bring  a  supply 
of  water  for  the  camp. 


Exercise 

Select  the  verbs  used  to  express  a  command  or  make  a  request  :— 
A  great  crowd  was  at  the  golf  grounds  yesterday,  and  I  was 
interested  to  note  the  variety  of  requests  and  commands  that  I 
overheard.  "  Run  for  that  ball.  Throw  it  here.  Don't  stand 
in  my  way.  Make  more  room  in  front.  Bring  me  a  glass  of 
water.  Show  me  your  list  of  players  a  moment.  Sit  down  ! 
Get  me  another  golf-ball.  See  that  play.  Let  me  try.  Keep 
very  quiet.  Do  not  wait  for  me.  Go  to  that  end  of  the  field. 
Stay  there  till  five  o'clock.  Grasp  the  club  with  both  hands. 
Don't  hold  it  too  stiffly.  Now  raise  it  over  your  shoulder. 
Now  make  a  stroke  !  " 

Exercise  %16 

Name  the  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verbs  :— 

You  will  be  interested  to  know  that  we  shall  move  into  the 
new  house  next  week.  I  have  been  packing  books  and  china 
all  this  morning.  The  old  house  has  been  our  home  for  ten 
years.  It  had  grown  rather  shabby  before  we  bought  it,  and 
required  constant  attention.  If  we  had  known  more  we  should 
have  built  at  once.  The  new  house  has  fifteen  rooms  and  com- 
mands a  magnificent  view.  We  expect  you  to  spend  at  least 
a  week  with  us  in  October. 


THE    SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 


209 


Exercise  217 

Using  the  following1  verbs,  construct  sentences  expressing  com- 
mands or  requests:  — 

Give,  tell,  come,  ask,  go,  call,  write,  break,  take,  like,  listen, 
keep,  begin,  hurry,  try,  obey,  speak,  watch,  drive,  hide,  wait, 
fill,  see. 


CHAPTER    LXXVII 

THE   SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

The  earlier  English  writers  used  the  Subjunctive 
Mood  far  more  freely  than  is  the  case  to-day.  At 
present  the  best  writers  and  speakers  rarely  use  dis- 
tinctive forms  for  the  subjunctive  of  any  other  verb 
than  be  in  the  present  and  past  tenses. 

Compare  these  two  tenses  of  be  in  the  indicative  and 
the  subjunctive  moods:— 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR 

1.  lam 

2.  You  are  (thou  art) 

3.  He  is 


Past  Tense 


1.  I  was 

2.  You  were 

3.  He  was 


(thou  wast) 
; 

(thou  wert) 


PLURAL 

1.  We  are 
£.  You  are 
3.  They  are 

1.  We  were 

2.  You  were 

3.  They  were 


210 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  If  I  be  1.  If  we  be 

2.  If  you  be  (if  thou  be)  2.  If  you  be 

3.  If  he  be  3.  If  they  be 

Past  Tense 

1.  If  I  were  1.  If  we  were 

2.  If  you  were  (if  thou  wert)  2.  If  you  were 

3.  If  he  were  3.  If  they  were 

In  all  verbs  except  be  the  subjunctive  forms  in  all 
the  tenses  are  exactly  like  those  of  the  indicative  except 
in  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense,1  as  in  the 
following  example:— 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  give  1.  We  give 

2.  You  give  (thou  gives t)  2.  You  give 

3.  He  gives  3.  They  give 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

1.  If  I  give  1.  If  we  give 

2.  If  you  give  (if  thou  give)  2.  If  you  give 

3.  If  he  give  3.  If  they  give 

The  subjunctive  mood  in  dependent  clauses  is  most 
frequently  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunctions, 
iff  as  if,  though,  although,  unless,  lest,  and  so  on. 

1  This  statement  of  course  takes  no  account  of  the  th'ou-forms. 


MEANING    OF   THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 

In  the  forms  presented  above,  if  is  used,  not  because 
it  is  a  part  of  the  verb,  but  because  it  is  oftener  used 
with  the  subjunctive  than  any  other  conjunction. 

THE  USE  AND  MEANING  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Turning  from  the  form  of  the  subjunctive  to  its  use 
and  meaning,  let  us  examine  the  third  and  fourth  ex- 
amples in  Chapter  LXXV.  In  neither  of  these  sen- 
tences does  the  verb  express  a  fact.  In  the  third  sen- 
tence were  expresses  a  condition  that  does  not  exist 
except  as  it  is  conceived  by  the  mind.  "The  tourist"  is 
not  in  Yellowstone  Park,  but  if  he  were  there,  he  could 
see  the  geysers.  In  the  fourth  sentence  were  expresses 
the  wish  that  something  might  be  true.  But  we  know 
that  it  is  not  true,  that  it  is  only  thought  of. 

In  these  two  examples  we  find  the  key  to  the  use  of 
the  subjunctive  mood.  It  makes  assertions  not  about 
facts,  but  about  things  that  are  merely  thought  of — 
that  are  doubtful,  uncertain,  or  even  contrary  to  fact. 
Hence— 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  used  to  assert  something 
doubtful,  uncertain,  or  contrary  to  reality. 

We  often  express  doubt  or  possibility  by  using  the  indicative 
with  words  that  modify  the  assertion.  But  in  this  case  the  doubt 
or  possibility  is  expressed  by  the  modifier  and  not  by  the  verb. 
For  example : — 

Possibly  he  is  coming. 

It  is  possible  that  he  is  coming. 

Perhaps  he  is  coming. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  subjunctive  is  used  in  old  phrases  such  as  had  rather,  had 
better  and  some  others.  Objection  is  sometimes  made  to  these 
forms  on  the  ground  that  they  cannot  be  easily  parsed.  But  these 
expressions  have  been  employed  for  hundreds  of  years  by  the  best 
speakers  and  writers,  and  may  be  used  without  hesitation. 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  often  used  to  express 
purpose,  as  in  the  following  example:— 

"  Carlton  worked  faithfully,  that  he  might  win  the  prize." 
Might  win,  expressing  Carlton's  purpose,  is  in  the  Subjunctive 
Mood. 

THE  CONDITION  AND  THE  CONCLUSION 

Every  sentence  that  contains  a  dependent  conditional 
clause  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  if  is 
of  course  complex  and  contains  also  a  main  clause. 
The  conditional  clause  is  called  the  condition,  and  the 
main  clause  the  conclusion.  In  the  example,  "If  the 
day  were  fair  I  could  go  to  the  picnic,"  which  is 
the  dependent  clause,  or  condition?  Which  is  the  main 
clause,  or  conclusion?  The  verb  could  go,  quite  as  much 
as  the  verb  were,  asserts  something  contrary  to  reality. 

In  could  go  we  have  an  instance  of  a  subjunctive 
verb-phrase.  In  modern  usage  such  verb-phrases  are 
much  more  common  than  the  inflectional  subjunctive 
forms. 

The  dependent  clause  that  we  call  the  condition  is  always  an 
adverbial  clause. 

Exercise 


Does  the  italicized  verb  in  each  sentence  express  a  wish  or  a 
condition  contrary  to  reality? 


CONDITIONS    AND    WISHES 

1.  If  I  had  more  money  I  would  help  jou. 

2.  If  you  were  a  king,  what  would  you  do  first? 

3.  Were  you  suddenly  to  become  rich,  what  would  you 
do  first? 

4.  If  he  had  written,  we  might  have  met  him  at  the  station. 

5.  May  you  be  happy  in  your  new  home. 

6.  The  Lord  keep  thee  in  all  thy  ways. 

7.  If  he   had  been  able   to  swim,  he   could   have   saved 
himself. 

8.  If  we  had  only  known  what  was  coming,  we  could  have 
prepared  ourselves. 

9.  Were  I  differently  situated,  I  might  hope  to  accom- 
plish something. 

10.  May  you  be  spared  what  we  have  suffered. 

11.  Thy  kingdom  come,  thy  will  be  done. 

12.  May  we  be  led  in  a  plain  path. 

13.  Suppose  you  were  to  go  to  New  York,  what  would  you 
do  there? 

14.  Frank  would  like  to  go  with  you,  if  there  were  more 
room. 

15.  Had  Napoleon  started  an  hour  earlier,  he  might  have 
won  the  battle. 

16.  O  that  I  had  the  wings  of  a  dove! 

17.  O  that  he  knew  what  we  know! 

DOUBT  OR  UNCERTAINTY 

In  many  cases  something  doubtful  or  uncertain  is  ex- 
pressed both  by  the  verb  in  the  condition  and  the  verb 
in  the  conclusion,  as  the  following  examples  show: — 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

If  you  should  join  our  party,  you  would  receive  a  welcome. 
If  it  should  rain  to-morrow,  the  ground  would  be  too  wet 
for  the  picnic. 

Each  italicized  verb  here  asserts  something  uncer- 
tain or  doubtful,  and  is  therefore  in  the  subjunctive 
mood.  We  are  uncertain  whether  you  will  join  our 
party  or  not,  just  as  we  are  uncertain  whether  it  will 
rain.  The  conclusion,  which  cannot  be  realized  unless 
the  condition  is  fulfilled,  is  also  subjunctive. 

If  either  the  condition  or  the  conclusion  asserts 
something  as  a  fact  or  assumed  to  be  a  fact,  the  verb 
is  in  the  indicative  mood;  as,  "If  it  is  rainy  to-morrow, 
we  shall  not  go  on  our  picnic.  If  he  joins  our  com- 
pany, he  will  receive  a  hearty  welcome." 

Exercise  219 

In  the  following  conditional  sentences  which  is  the  dependent 
clause,  or  condition?  Which  is  the  main  clause,  or  conclusion? 
Name  the  verbs,  and  tell  why  each  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood: — 

1.  If  Washington  were  living  to-day,  he  would  see  strange 
sights. 

2.  If  the  captain  had  expected  such  a  storm,  he  would  have 
waited  another  day. 

3.  If  it  were  worth  while,  we  could  have  a  special  train. 

4.  Were  that  once  admitted,  every  man  would  have  to  be 
a  soldier. 

5.  He  might  be  rich  to-day,  if  he  had  cared  for  business. 

6.  If  the  concert  had  begun  promptly,  it  would  have  been 
over  at  nine  o'clock. 


TENSE    IN    THE    SUBJUNCTIVE  215 

7.  If  the  train  had  not  been  delayed,  George  would  have 
arrived  this  morning. 

8.  Had  we  anticipated  such  a  delay,  we  could  have  made 
some  other  plan. 

9.  The  wheat  crop  would  have  been  enormous,  if  the  season 
had  been  warmer. 

10.  If  we  had  had  more  rain,  the  roads  would  be  pleasanter. 

11.  If  men  could  fly,  they  could  often  save  time. 

12.  If  we  had  seen  you,  we  should  have  waited  for  you. 

TENSE  IN  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

We  have  now  to  look  at  the  use  of  tenses  in  the 
subjunctive  :— 

If  the  dinner  were  ready,  we  should  eat. 

If  the  dinner  had  been  ready,  we  should  have  eaten. 

Where  the  condition  and  the  conclusion  are  contrary 
to  reality,  the  past  subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  present 
time,  as  in  the  first  sentence,  and  the  past  perfect  sub- 
junctive to  express  past  time,  as  in  the  second  sen- 
tence. But  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  tenses  of 
the  subjunctive  do  not  indicate  time  so  definitely  as 
the  tenses  of  the  indicative  do,  the  subjunctive  present 
often  referring  to  future  time.  This,  as  already  noted 
(p.  161),  is  sometimes  true  also  of  the  indicative  present. 


Exercise 

Name  all  the  verbs  in  the  following  exercise,  and  explain  those 
that  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  Tell  whether  the  condition  and 
the  conclusion  express  something  doubtful  or  something'  contrary 
to  reality: — 


216  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

1.  If  wishes  were  horses  beggars  might  ride. 

2.  He  walks  as  if  he  were  lame  (as  he  would  walk  if  he 
were  lame). 

3.  We  hoped  that  we  might  find  a  satisfactory  house. 

4.  Were  he  here  now,  no  one  would  be  afraid. 

5.  Had  he  been  here,  every  one  would  have  been  satisfied. 

6.  If  you  were  to  see  him  now,  what  would  you  say  ? 

7.  If  you  were  to  fall  into  a  river,  could  you  swim  out? 

8.  Had  he  fallen  into  the  river,  he  would  have  drowned. 

9.  If  I  should  tell  you  the  news,  you  would  hardly  believe  it. 

10.  Even  if  it  be  true,  it  will  not  harm  him. 

11.  You  would  like  the  house  if  you  were  to  see  it. 

12.  Supposing  your  friend  were   to  come,  we  could  not 
meet  him. 


Exercise  £81,  for  Review 
Explain  the  moods  of  the  verbs  :  — 

"  Children,  come  here  a  moment,"  said  Ethel.  "  I  have 
something  to  show  you.  Try  to  keep  quiet."  The  children 
sat  down  on  the  grass.  Each  one  looked  up  at  the  speaker. 
She  held  in  her  hand  an  ivory  box  mounted  with  silver. 
"  Look  at  this  ivory  box  with  the  carved  lid.  Will  you  tell 
me  how  you  would  open  the  box?  "  "  We  would  if  we  could," 
said  three  or  four.  "  If  you  had  ever  seen  one  like  it,  you 
could  tell  easily  enough.  Well,  watch  me,  and  see  what  I  do." 

All  watched  the  box  as  it  lay  on  the  table.  Then,  after  a 
wave  of  her  hand  over  the  box,  the  lid  slowly  opened.  The  sur- 
prise of  the  children  knew  no  bounds.  "  There  is  some  secret 
in  the  box,"  said  they.  "  What  did  you  do,  Ethel  ?  "  "  Noth- 
ing at  all.  I  will  explain  the  secret,"  said  she.  "  If  you  were  to 


MOODS    AND    TENSES 

examine  the  bottom  of  the  box  you  would  find  it  full  of  wheels. 
These  wheels  wind  up  like  a  clock  when  you  turn  this  knob. 
Every  five  minutes  the  cover  opens." 

"  I  couldn't  make  any  use  of  such  a  box  if  I  had  it,"  said  one 
of  the  girls.  "No,"  said  Ethel,  "  it  is  nothing  but  an  expensive 
toy.  You  shall  see  some  other  things  that  will  interest  you 
just  as  much,  and  that  are  far  more  useful." 

Exercise  222,  for  Review 

Select  the  verbs  in  this  exercise.  In  what  tense  is  each,  and 
why  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  each  ?  Point  out  the  objects  of  the 
transitive  verbs: — 

For  several  weeks  a  large  number  of  workmen  have  been 
building  a  factory  near  my  house.  I  often  watch  them  from 
my  window.  When  they  began  the  work  they  had  to  clear  the 
land  of  trees  and  bushes.  Then  they  dug  the  cellar  and  laid  the 
foundations.  They  brought  the  stone  from  a  quarry  near  by. 
They  found  good  sand  in  digging  the  cellar,  and  they  made 
lime  for  mortar  by  burning  limestone  in  an  old  kiln  beside  the 
quarry. 

As  I  see  them  now  they  are  raising  heavy  steel  girders  to 
support  the  floors.  The  masons  have  nearly  finished  the  walls 
for  the  first  story,  and  there  are  huge  piles  of  brick  and  stone 
waiting  for  the  carriers.  The  carpenters  have  laid  a  rough 
floor  for  the  first  story,  and  they  will  begin  the  second  story 
next  week. 

The  contractors  have  hastened  the  work  as  much  as  possible* 
for  they  expect  a  large  sum  of  money  if  they  present  the  entire 
factory  ready  for  use  at  the  end  of  the  summer.  The  work- 
men will  get  some  share  of  the  extra  profits,  and  they  well  de- 
serve it. 


218 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


CHAPTER    LXXVIII 

CONJUGATION    OF   THE  ACTIVE   VOICE 

From  time  to  time  we  have  considered  various  forms 
of  the  verb  that  have  appeared  in  the  sentences  we 
have  studied.  It  now  remains  for  us  to  put  together  in 
an  orderly  arrangement  the  verb-forms  and  verb-phrases 
used  for  the  different  moods,  tenses,  persons,  and  num- 
bers. Such  an  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  verb  we 
call  Conjugation. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  Move  IN  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE 
Principal  Parts 

PRESENT  TENSE  PAST   TENSE 

move  moved 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 


PAST    PARTICIPLE 

moved 


SINGULAR 

1.  I  move 

2.  You  move  (thou  movest) 

3.  He  moves 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  moved 

2.  You  moved  (thou  movedst) 

3.  He  moved 

Future  Tense 

1.  I  shall  move 

2.  You  will  move   (thou  wilt 

move) 

3.  He  will  move 


PLURAL 
1.  We  move 
&.  You  move 
3.  They  move 

1 .  We  moved 
8.  You  moved 
3.  They  moved 

1.  We  shall  move 

2.  You  will  move 

3.  They  will  move 


THE    CONJUGATION    OF    MOVE  219 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  have  moved  1.  We  have  moved 

£.  You  have  moved  (thou  hast  2.  You  have  moved 

moved) 

3.  He  has  moved  3.  They  have  moved 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

1.  We  had  moved  1.  We  had  moved 

%.  You     had     moved  (thou     2.  You  had  moved 

hadst  moved) 
3.  He  had  moved  3.  They  had  moved 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

1.  We  shall  have  moved  1.  We  shall  have  moved 

2.  You  will  have  moved  (thou      2.  You  will  have  moved 

wilt  have  moved) 

3.  He  will  have  moved  3.  They  will  have  moved 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

1.  If  I  move  1.  If  we  move 

2.  If  you  move  (if  thou  move)     2.  If  you  move 

3.  If  he  move  3.  If  they  move 

Past  Tense 

1.  If  I  moved  1.  If  we  moved 

2.  If  you  moved  (if  thou  2.  If  you  moved 

movedst) 

3.  If  he  moved  3.  If  they  moved 


220  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

move  (thou  or  you)  move  (you) 

INFINITIVE 

PRESENT  PERFECT 

(To)  move  (To)  have  moved 

PARTICIPLES 

PRESENT  PERFECT 

moving  having  moved 

NOTE. — For  the  sake  of  brevity  we  give  the  conjugation  of  the  sub- 
junctive in  the  present  and  past  tenses  only.  The  other  tenses  can  be 
supplied  without  difficulty. 

Exercise  223 

Using  the  subject  he,  write— 

1.  All  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood  of  the  verbs  love, 
hear,  and  see. 

£.  The  present  and  past  subjunctive  of  the  same  verbs. 

Exercise  224 
Write— 

1.  The  imperative  present  in  both  numbers  of  take,  know, 
say,  remember,  command,  make,  lay. 

2.  The  infinitive  forms  and  participles  of  save,  have,  hear, 
see,  salute,  bring,  say,  wish,  buy. 

Exercise  225,  for  Review 

Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  paragraphs.  In  what  tense  is 
each? 

I  have  had  no  time  to  write  before,  for  I  have  been  very 
busy.  I  have  seen  your  friend.  He  says  he  has  lived  in  the 


EXERCISES    ON    VERB-FORMS 

city  ten  years,  but  he  prefers  the  country,  and  will  soon  sell  his 
house  and  buy  a  small  farm  near  the  seashore. 

He  tells  me  that  when  he  built  his  present  house  there  was 
no  other  dwelling  in  his  neighborhood.  But  three  years  ago 
a  contractor  bought  all  the  land  that  was  for  sale,  and  cut  it 
up  into  small  building-lots.  Since  that  time  there  has  been 
confusion.  Carts  have  filled  the  streets.  Heaps  of  sand  and 
piles  of  brick  and  lumber  have  covered  the  stretches  of  green 
turf  that  were  the  principal  attraction  of  the  place. 

Within  a  year,  the  contractor  has  erected  at  least  a  hundred 
houses,  and  he  will  probably  put  up  fifty  more  next  year. 
"  I  shall  be  glad,"  remarked  your  friend,  "  to  forget  that  I 
have  ever  had  a  house  here.  The  place  has  changed  so  much 
that  it  no  longer  seems  like  home.  It  is  hard  for  me  to  realize 
that  by  next  May  I  shall  have  lived  here  exactly  ten  years." 

Exercise  226 

Give  the  tense,  person,  and  number  of  the  following  verb- 
forms : — 

We  may  hear,  you  have  seen,  he  compelled,  they  saved,  we 
are,  you  have,  I  met,  he  glared,  they  surrounded,  they  were, 
she  kept,  it  led,  he  requires,  they  will  come,  has  she  spoken,  you 
had  heard,  he  will  have  gone,  he  believes,  we  have  driven,  they 
had  looked,  it  has  arrived,  we  worship,  they  will  have  found, 
you  have  welcomed,  she  gives. 

Exercise  227 
Write  the  infinitives  and  participles  of  the  following  verbs:— 

Think,  choose,  buy,  cost,  lend,  have,  swallow,  jump,  hold, 
keep,  die,  fly,  use,  take,  vote,  settle,  decide,  glean,  sift,  mark, 
fling,  throw,  flow,  flee,  blow,  sink. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  228,  for  Review 

1.  In  what  mood,  tense,  person,  and  number  are  the  verbs  in 
Exercise  92  (p.  76)? 

2.  In  what  mood  and  tense  are  the  verbs  in  Exercise  93  (p.  77)? 


Exercise  229,  for  Review 

Explain  the  mood  and  tense  of  each  verb  in  the  following 
paragraphs.  With  what  subject  is  each  used? 

Early  one  morning  last  week  I  heard  two  dogs  barking 
furiously  under  my  window.  I  looked  out  and  saw  a  pair  of 
robins  quietly  building  a  new  nest  in  an  apple-tree.  They 
gathered  bits  of  straw  and  twigs  and  string,  and  then  wove 
the  whole  firmly  together.  The  sight  was  so  interesting  that 
I  called  George  to  come  and  watch  them.  He  had  never  seen 
anything  like  it  and  exclaimed,  "  See  them  pick  that  string 
out  of  the  grass.  Look,  look  there,  the  big  bird  has  found 
something  else.  Stop  that  barking,"  said  he  to  the  dogs,  "  you 
will  frighten  the  birds.  Do  you  think,  mother,  that  if  I  were 
to  go  nearer  the  tree  the  birds  would  be  frightened  ?  "  I  told 
him  to  wait  a  few  minutes,  and  added,  "  If  the  mother  bird 
were  to  see  you  she  might  be  as  much  afraid  of  you  as  of  the 
dogs." 

I  was  curious  myself  to  know  what  the  robins  would  do. 
After  a  little  I  said,  "  Come,  George,  we  will  try  to  make  friends 
with  the  birds."  We  went  out  quietly  and  stood  perfectly  still 
near  the  tree.  At  first  the  robins  flew  about  as  if  they  were 
frightened.  Then  when  they  saw  that  we  made  no  movement, 
they  came  nearer.  Presently  they  picked  up  twigs  at  my  feet 
and  hopped  about  as  if  they  had  always  known  us. 


FORMATION    OF    THE    PASSIVE 


CHAPTER    LXXIX 

THE    PASSIVE   VOICE 

You  have  already  learned  that  a  transitive  verb  is 
in  the  Active  Voice  if  the  subject  is  the  actor  ;  and  that 
a  transitive  verb  is  in  the  Passive  Voice  if  the  subject 
is  the  receiver  of  the  action.  It  now  remains  to  be  seen 
how  the  form  of  the  verb  is  altered  when  the  verb  is 
changed  from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice. 

ACTIVE    VOICE  PASSIVE   VOICE 

1.  The  boy   holds  the  child.      The  child  is  held  by  the  boy. 

2.  The  boy  held  the  child.  The  child  was  held  by  the  boy. 

3.  The    boy    will    hold    the      The  child  will  be  held  by  the 

child.  boy. 

4.  The    boy    has     held    the      The  child  has  been  held  by 

child.  the  boy. 

5.  The    boy    had    held    the      The  child  had  been  held  by 

child.  the  boy. 

6.  The    boy    will   have    held     The  child  will  have  been  held 

the  child.  by  the  boy. 

It  is  evident,  on  comparing  the  sentences  in  the  first 
column  with  those  in  the  second  column,  that  the 
meaning  is  the  same  whether  the  active  or  the  passive 
voice  of  the  verb  is  used.  But  note  the  changes  in  the 
form  of  the  sentences,  taking  for  illustration  the  first 
pair  of  examples. 

The  subject  boy  of  the  active  verb  holds  becomes  in 
the  passive  form  the  object  of  the  preposition  by. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

The  object  child  of  the  active  verb  holds  becomes  in 
the  passive  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  held. 

The  simple  verb-form  holds  of  the  active  becomes  in 
the  passive  a  verb-phrase  consisting  of  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  hold  and  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  be. 

In  changing  from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice, 
the  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  subject  of  the 
passive  verb.  Intransitive  verbs,  therefore,  since  they 
have  no  object,  can  have  no  passive  voice.1 

On  looking  again  at  the  examples  you  will  find  the 
past  participle  of  the  verb  hold  used  in  each  of  the 
six  tenses  of  the  indicative.  United  with  this  participle 
is  some  form  of  the  verb  be.  We  have,  then,  the 
rule : — 

To  make  the  Passive  Voice  of  any  transitive  verb  we 
unite  some  form  of  the  verb  be  with  the  Past  Participle 
of  a  transitive  verb. 

CONJUGATION    OF   BE 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  am  1.  We  are 

2.  You  are  (thou  art)  2.  You  are 

3.  He  is  3.  They  are 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  was  1.  We  were 

2.  You  were  (thou  wast  or  2.  You  were 

wert) 

3.  He  was  3.  They    were 

1  But  see  page  159. 


CONJUGATION    OF    BE  225 

Future  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  shall  be  1.  We  shall  be 

2.  You   will   be    (thou   wilt  2.  You  will  be 

be) 

3.  He  will  be  3.  They  will  be 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  have  been  1.  We  have  been 

2.  You    have     been     (thou  2.  You  have  been 

hast  been) 

3.  He  has  been  3.  They  have  been 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  had  been  1.  We  had  been 

2.  You     had     been     (thou  2.  You  had  been 

hadst  been) 

3.  He  had  been  3.  They  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  shall  have  been  1.  We  shall  have  been 

2.  You  will  have  been  (thou  2.  You  will  have  been 

wilt  have  been) 

3.  He  will  have  been  3.  They  will  have  been 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

1.  If  I  be  1.  If  we  be 

2.  If  you  be  (if  thou  be)          2.  If  you  be 

3.  If  he  be  3.  If  they  be 

Past  Tense 

1.  If  I  were  1.  If  we  were 

2.  If  you  were  ( if  thou  wert )     2.  If  you  were 

3.  If  he  were  3.  If  they  were 


226  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

INFINITIVE  MOOD 

PRESENT  PERFECT 

(To)  be  (To)  have  been 

PARTICIPLES 

PRESENT  PAST  PERFECT 

Being  Been  Having  been 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense 
Be  (thou  or  you)  Be  (you) 

CHAPTER    LXXX 

CONJUGATION   OF   MOVE   IN   THE   PASSIVE  VOICE 

We  will  now  combine  the  various  forms  of  the  verb 
be  with  the  past  participle  moved  and  conjugate  move 
in  the  passive  voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  am  moved  1.  We  are  moved 

2.  You  are  moved  (thou  art      2.  You  are  moved 

moved  ) 

3.  He  is  moved  3.  They  are  moved 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  was  moved  1.  We  were  moved 

2.  You  were  moved    (thou       2.  You  were  moved 

wast  or  wert  moved) 

3.  He  was  moved  3.  They  were  moved 


CONJUGATION    OF    MOVE    IN    THE    PASSIVE  227 

Future  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  shall  be  moved  1.  We  shall  be  moved 

2.  You  will  be  moved  (thou       2.  You  will  be  moved 

wilt  be  moved) 

3.  He  will  be  moved  3.  They  will  be  moved 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  have  been  moved  1.  We  have  been  moved 

2.  You    have    been    moved       2.  You  have  been  moved 

( thou  hast  been  moved  ) 

3.  He  has  been  moved  3.  They  have  been  moved 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  had  been  moved  1.  We  had  been  moved 

2.  You     had     been     moved      2.  You  had  been  moved 

(thou       hadst      been 
moved) 

3.  He  had  been  moved  3.  They  had  been  moved 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  shall  have  been  moved          1.  We  shall  have  been  moved 

2.  You  will  have  been  moved       2.  You  will  have  been  moved 

(thou  wilt  have  been 
moved  ) 

3.  He  will  have  been  moved        3.  He  will  have  been  moved 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 

1.  If  I  be  moved  1.  If  we  be  moved 

2.  If  you  be  moved  (if  thou       2.  If  you  be  moved 

be  moved) 
If  he  be  moved  3.  If  they  be  moved 


228  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Past  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  If  I  were  moved  1.  If  we  were  moved 

2.  If  you  were   moved    (if       2.  If  you  were  moved 

thou  wert  moved  ) 

3.  If  he  were  moved  3.  If  they  were  moved 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 
Be  (thou,  you)  moved  Be  (you)  moved 

INFINITIVES 
(To)  be  moved  (To)  have  been  moved 

PARTICIPLES 

Present  Past  Perfect 

Being  moved  Moved  Having  been  moved 

Exercise  230 

In  what  mood,  tense,  person,  and  number  are  the  following 
passive  verb-phrases? 

He  will  be  heard,  they  had  been  seen,  you  are  heard,  I  shall 
be  pleased,  we  have  been  brought,  they  will  be  chosen,  you 
had  been  found,  he  will  be  found,  he  was  found,  you  will  have 
been  found,  they  have  been  seen,  he  is  seen,  you  will  be  heard, 
I  was  heard,  they  will  have  been  heard,  I  am  heard,  he  had  been 
heard. 

Exercise  231 

Using  love  as  the  verb  and  he  as  the  subject,  write  passive 
verb-phrases  in  the  indicative  mood  for  the  following  tenses  :— 

The  future  perfect,  the  present,  the  future,  the  past,  the 
present  perfect,  the  past  perfect. 


EXERCISES    ON    VERB-FORMS  229 

Exercise 


Write  all  the  participles  and  the  infinitive  forms  of  the  fol- 
lowing verbs: — 

Build,  drink,  find,  hit,  lay,  sow,  spend,  write. 


Exercise 

Write  in  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  exercise.  Use  lie  as  the  subject  of 
each  verb. 

Exercise  234 

Select  all  the  verbs  in  the  passive  voice.  Wrhat  is  the  tense  of 
each  ? 

I  was  called  to  the  telephone  early  this  morning.  An  im- 
portant message  was  given  me.  A  schooner  had  been  stranded 
for  several  hours  on  the  Michigan  side  of  the  lake.  The  cargo 
had  been  unskilfully  loaded,  and  the  vessel  had  been  caught 
in  a  heavy  gale.  As  soon  as  possible, -assistance  was  sent.  Two 
tugboats  were  ordered  up  from  Chicago.  Cables  were  fastened 
to  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  and  it  was  moved  a  little  distance. 
But  it  had  been  driven  well  up  on  the  shore,  and  could  not  be 
hauled  off  in  the  face  of  the  heavy  waves. 

About  noon  I  was  informed  that  the  schooner  was  completely 
wrecked.  The  hull  was  injured  by  a  hidden  rock,  the  hatches 
were  torn  off  by  the  force  of  the  wind  and  the  waves,  the  masts 
were  broken,  and  the  cargo  of  wheat  was  spoiled  by  the  water. 
When  this  was  announced,  word  was  sent  to  the  captains  of  the 
tugs,  and  the  wrecking-party  was  recalled.  Fortunately  all 
the  crew  have  been  saved,  but  everything  else  has  been  lost. 


230  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  235,  for  Review 

Write  in  parallel  columns  all  the  verbs  of  the  paragraph  in  the 
present,  past,  and  future  tenses: — 

The  French  country  districts  well  repay  a  lover  of  quaint, 
old-fashioned  things.  The  little  towns  sleep  quietly  and 
hardly  know  what  busy  life  is,  but  they  have  a  charm  for 
any  one  who  is  not  in  a  hurry.  They  abound  in  narrow, 
crooked  streets.  They  possess  rare  treasures  in  the  stained 
glass  and  the  carvings  of  old  churches.  They  boast  hotels 
built  hundreds  of  years  ago.  You  find  ruined  castles  where 
you  least  expect  them.  The  parks  contain  huge  trees.  No 
country  is  perfect,  but  rural  France  certainly  is  almost  per- 
fect in  its  way. 

CHAPTER    LXXXI 

AUXILIARY  VERBS 

Observe  the  following  sentences: — 

I  see  the  tree. 
I  read  the  book. 
I  walk  to  school. 
I  study  at  home. 

Here  each  of  these  verbs  is  simple  and  makes  sense 
without  reference  to  any  other  verb.  We  have,  how- 
ever, a  small,  but  very  important,  group  of  verbs  that 
are  peculiar  in  that  they  are  not  commonly  used  alone 
but  along  with  other  verbs.  If  you  say,  "I  can,"  "I 
will,"  "I  must,"  "I  should,"  we  do  not  know  fully  what 
you  mean.  But  when  you  say, 


AUXILIARY    VERBS 

I  can  see  the  tree, 
I  will  read  the  book, 
I  must  walk  to  school, 
I  should  study  at  home, 

we  get  your  complete  thought.  Verbs  like  can,  will, 
must,  should  are  called  Auxiliary  (that  is,  helping]  Verbs. 
They  unite  with  other  verbs  to  make  verb-phrases.  We 
have,  then,  the  definition: — 

Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  of  which  other 
verbs  form  various  moods,  tenses,  persons,  and  numbers. 

Some  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  such  as  am,  was,  liave, 
do,  may  be  used  independently.  For  example: — 

He  lias  everything  there  is. 
You  have  the  book. 
Who  did  the  work? 

The  common  auxiliaries  are  be  (am,  was),  may, 
might,  can,  could,  must,  shall,  should,  will,  would,  do, 
did,  have,  had. 

All  the  auxiliaries  except  be  (am,  was),  have,  had, 
unite  with  the  infinitive1  of  other  verbs  to  form  verb- 
phrases.  In  such  cases  the  infinitive  sign  to  is  omitted. 

Be  (am,  was),  have,  had,  unite  with  the  participles 
of  other  verbs  to  form  verb-phrases. 

Verbs  employ  auxiliaries  very  freely.  In  fact,  there 
are  at  most  in  everyday  use  only  four  simple  verb- 
forms  in  weak  verbs,  and  five  in  strong  verbs.  For 
example,  the  weak  verb  move  has  only  the  following 

1  See  page  177. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

simple  forms :  move,  moves,  moving,  moved.  The 
strong  verb  see  has  the  five  following:  see,  sees,  see- 
ing, saw,  seen.  Some  strong  verbs  have  the  past  tense 
and  the  past  participle  alike.  Such  verbs  have  only 
four  simple  verb-forms.  For  example,  sit,  sits,  sitting, 
sat.  Some  weak  verbs  have  the  present  and  past  tenses 
and  the  past  participle  alike,  and  only  three  forms. 
For  example,  cut,  cuts,  cutting. 

In  this  enumeration  we  take  no  account  of  the  verb-forms  used 
in  the  solemn  style. 

Exercise  236 

Which  of  the  italicized  words  are  auxiliary  verbs  1    In  every 
case  give  reasons  for  your  answers. 

1.  Do  not  waste  time  when  you  study. 

2.  One  may  often  seem  busy  when  accomplishing  nothing. 

3.  Can  you  study  in  a  noisy  room? 

4.  I  have  succeeded  sometimes. 

5.  For  myself  I  should  prefer  a  room  some  distance  from 
the  street. 

6.  We  will  try  to  accommodate  you. 

7.  Will  you  look  at  this  one? 

8.  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  it. 

9.  Will  you  pay  in  advance? 

10.  I  will  leave  the  matter  entirely  to  you. 

11.  The  painters  have  not  finished  the  back  rooms. 

12.  What  have  they  done  all  the  week? 

13.  Where  does  the  superintendent  live? 

14.  You  might  find  him  at  his  office. 

15.  Have  you  seen  him  this  morning? 


POTENTIAL    VERB-PHRASES 

16.  He  must  have  gone  out. 

17.  Yes,  he  has  left  a  notice  on  his  door. 

18.  He  may  not  return  to-day. 

19.  We  should  have  been  earlier. 

20.  We  did  not  know  that  he  would  be  away. 

21.  We  should  be  willing  to  wait  if  we  could  be  sure  he 
would  come  back. 

22.  We  might  leave  word  where  we  shall  be  this  afternoon. 

23.  Do  you  think  we  may  hope  to  see  him  this  evening? 

24.  Yes,  you  may  safely  rely  upon  seeing  him  then. 


CHAPTER    LXXXII 

POTENTIAL  VERB-PHRASES 

We  have  commented  upon  auxiliaries  in  general. 
We  now  consider  a  very  important  group  of  verb- 
phrases  formed  by  the  help  of  auxiliaries. 

Among  the  auxiliaries  of  very  frequent  use  in  mod- 
ern English,  as  our  examples  have  shown,  are  may, 
can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should.  These, 
united  with  the  infinitive  without  to,  form  verb-phrases 
that  are  by  earlier  grammarians  classed  together  as  a 
distinct  mood  called  the  Potential1  Mood.  More  properly, 
however,  these  verb-phrases  may  be  regarded  as  forms 
either  of  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive  mood,  ac- 
cording to  the  thought  they  convey.  If  they  assert  a  fact 
or  ask  a  question,  they  are  in  the  indicative  mood.  But 
if  they  assert  what  is  conceived  as  doubtful,  improbable,  or 

1  Potential  means  "having  power." 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

contrary  to  fact,  they  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and 
are  called  subjunctive  verb-phrases.     They  are  now 
used,  except  in  the  case  of  the  verb  be,  far  more  than 
the  simple  subjunctive  verb-forms. 
Note  these  principal  parts  and  conjugations : — 

PRESENT  PAST  PAST    PARTICIPLE 

may  might 

can  could 

will  would 

shall  should 

In  each  case  the  present  and  past  participles  of  these 
verbs  are  lacking. 

CONJUGATION  OF  May 
Present  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

1.  I  may  1.  We  may 

2.  You  may  (thou  mayst)  2.  You  may 

3.  He  may  3.  They  may 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  might  1.  We  might 

2.  You  might  (thou  mightest  or     2.  You  might 

mightst) 

3.  He  might  3.  They  might 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  may  have  1.  We  may  have 

£.  You  may   have    (thou   mayst     £.  You  may  have 

have) 
3.  He  may  have  3.  They  may  have 


CONJUGATION    OF    AUXILIARIES  235 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

SINGULAR  PLURAL, 

1.  I  might  have  1.  We  might  have 

2.  You  might  have  (thou  might-     2.  You  might  have 

est  or  mightst  have) 

3.  He  might  have  3.  They  might  have 

CONJUGATION  OF  Can 

Present  Tense 

1.  I  can  1.  We  can 

2.  You  can  (thou  canst)  £.  You  can 

3.  He  can  3.  They  can 

Past  Tense 

1.  I  could  1.  We  could 

£.  You  could  (thou  couldst)  2.  You  could 

3.  He  could  3.  They  could 

Present  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  can  have  1.  We  can  have 

2.  You  can  have  (thou  canst  have)  2.  You  can  have 

3.  He  can  have  3.  They  can  have 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

1.  I  could  have  1.  We  could  have 

£.  You  could  have  (thou  couldst       2.  You  could  have 

have) 
3.  He  could  have  3.  They  could  have 

We  have  already  discussed  will  and  shall  as  aux- 
iliaries employed  to  form  the  future  of  the  indicative. 
Would  and  should  are  frequently  used  in  a  future 


236  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

sense  in  subjunctive  verb-phrases;  as,  "He  would  go 
to-morrow  if  he  could." 

May  indicates  permission  or  possibility.  "You  may 
write"  means  that  you  are  permitted  to  write.  "I  may 
write"  is  the  same  as  "It  is  possible  that  I  shall  write." 
May  in  the  subjunctive  is  often  used  to  refer  to  future 
time;  as,  "I  will  ask  whether  I  may  go  with  him." 

Can  indicates  ability.  "We  can  do  much  if  we  are 
hopeful"  means  "We  are  able  to  do  much  if  we  are 
hopeful."  May  and  can  are  often  confused.  You  are 
correct  when  you  ask  your  teacher,  "May  I  go  home!" 
for  you  are  asking  permission  to  go.  But  if  you  say, 
"Can  I  go  home!"  you  say  in  effect,  "Am  I  able  to  go 
home!"  and  of  course  you  do  not  mean  that. 

Exercise  <237 

Select  the  potential  verb-phrases  in  the  following1  sentences. 
In  what  tense  is  each  1 

1.  You  may  have  seen  some  of  the  great  ocean  steamers  in 
New  York. 

2.  Such  a  man  may  be  generous,  but  one  can  hardly  call 
him  honest. 

3.  You  cannot  expect  to  learn  a  new  language  in  three 
months. 

4.  Could  you  lend  me  ten  dollars  for  a  day  or  two? 

5.  We  must  be  prepared  for  all  sorts  of  weather. 

6.  I  think  that  the  conductor  might  have  stopped  the  car. 

7.  On  a  quiet  day  a  small  boat  might  venture  outside  the 
breakwater. 


THE    USE    OF    AUXILIARIES  237 

8.  The  man  that  can  do  the  work  he  likes  best  is  to  be 
envied. 

9.  The  wind  blew  so  hard  that  we  could  not  row  against  it. 

10.  From  where  the  officers  sat  they  might  have  seen  every 
movement  of  the  enemy. 

11.  You  may  as  well  take  an  umbrella. 

12.  I  wish  you  could  have  met  my  friend. 

13.  The  landlady  could  not  say  that  we  were  welcome. 

14.  The  house  may  have  been  comfortable  years  ago. 

15.  You  may  be  right. 

16.  He  might  as  well  risk  a  little  money  and  enjoy  life. 

17.  A  pupil  cannot  afford  to  worry  over  his  work. 

18.  We  may  perhaps  suggest  some  improvements. 

19.  A  man  may  easily  fall  in  crossing  an  icy  street. 

Exercise  238 

Fill  out  the  blanks  in  each  case  with  may  or  can  and  explain 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

1.  I  not  read  in  the  evening. 

2.  None  but  a  strong  man lift  that  great  stone. 

,  perhaps,  catch  the  three  o'clock  train. 

I  be  excused  at  half-past  three? 

we  play  ten  minutes  longer? 

tell  what  you  learned  so  carefully  this 

we  go  home  by  this  path? 

-  do  anything  we  are  able  to  do. 

-  do  anything  we  are  permitted  to  do. 


10.  Many  people  would  like  to  read  but — -  not. 


238  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

easily  learn  about  the  trains  by  looking  at 

read  interesting  books  you  need  not  be 


one  help  making  mistakes  now  and  then? 
start  at  any  time. 
say  only  what  I  have  been  told. 

drive  home  if  you  wish. 
call  a  peach  an  apple,  but  it  -  not 


be  an  apple  after  all. 

CHAPTER    LXXXIII 

PROGRESSIVE    VERB-PHRASES 

Examine  the  verbs  in  italics  :  — 

1.  The     farmer     mows     his      The   farmer    is    mowing   his 

hay.  hay. 

2.  The     farmer    mowed    his     The  farmer  was  mowing  his 

hay.  hay. 

3.  The  farmer  will  mow  his     The  farmer  will  be  mowing 

hay.  his  hay. 

4.  The  farmer  has  mowed  his     The  farmer  has  been  mowing 

hay.  his  hay. 

5.  The  farmer  had  mowed  his     The  farmer  had  been  mowing 

hay.  his  hay. 

6.  The     farmer     will     have     The    farmer   will   have   been 

mowed  his  hay.  mowing  his  hay. 

When  we  say,  "  The  farmer  mows  his  hay,"  the  verb 
mows  is  used  to  make  a  simple  assertion  about  the 


PROGRESSIVE  VERB-PHRASES  239 

farmer.  The  same  is  true  when  we  say,  "The  farmer 
is  mowing  his  hay,"  but  the  verb  asserts  that  the 
action  is  going  on,  or  progressing,  at  the  present  time.1 
"Was  mowing"  asserts  that  the  action  was  going  on, 
or  progressing,  at  some  past  time.  Hence,  is  mowing, 
was  mowing,  will  be  moiving,  has  been  mowing,  had 
been  mowing,  and  will  have  been  mowing  are  called 
Progressive  Forms  of  the  verb,  or  Progressive  Verb-Phrases. 
You  will  observe  that  each  consists  of  the  present  par- 
ticiple mowing  and  some  form  of  the  verb  be.  Hence  — 

We   make   Progressive    Verb  -Phrases   by   uniting   the 
present  participle  with  some  form  of  the  verb  be. 

Exercise  ®39 

Make  progressive  verb-phrases  in  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 
mood. 

Run,  swim,  sing,  play,  row,  read,  cut,  wait. 
Exercise 


Write  progressive  verb-  phrases  in  the  present  and  past  indica- 
tive, and  use  each  of  them  with  they  as  subject  :  — 

Float,  fly,  skim,  paddle,  row,  sail. 

You  must  be  careful  not  to  confuse  progressive  verb- 
phrases  in  the  active  voice  with  passive  verb-phrases. 
Compare  the  sentences  standing  opposite  each  other  in 
the  parallel  columns  :— 

1  In  the  present  tense  the  progressive  forms  are  far  more  commonly  used 
than  the  simple  forms. 


240  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

PROGRESSIVE  VERB-PHRASES  PASSIVE  VERB-PHRASES 

1.  The  boy  is  striking  the  ox.  The  boy  is  struck. 

2.  The  fox  is  chasing  the  hen.  The  fox  is  chased. 

3.  The  soldier  is  shooting  the  The  soldier  is  shot. 

gun. 

Note  that  progressive  verb-phrases  in  the  active  voice 
are  made  by  uniting  the  present  active  participle  with 
some  form  of  the  verb  be;  but  that  passive  verb-phrases 
are  made  by  uniting  the  past  participle  with  some  form 
of  the  verb  be. 

Progressive  verb-phrases  in  the  present  and  past 
tenses  are  formed  in  the  passive  voice  by  using  am 
being,  is  being,  was  being,  etc.,  with  the  past  participle  ; 

for  example,  "The  fox   j          j-  being  chased." 

Progressive  verb-phrases  in  the  passive  are  often 
awkward,  and  should  be  sparingly  used. 


Exercise 

Write  in  parallel  columns  the  progressive  verb-phrases  and 
the  passive  verb-phrases  for  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative,  and 
use  each  phrase  with  they  as  subject:— 

Write,  hear,  see,  love,  call,  grieve. 
Exercise 


Show  which  are  progressive  verb-phrases  and  which  passive. 
What  is  the  mood  and  tense  of  each  ? 

1.  The  workmen  have  been  building  the  house  for  a  year. 

2.  The  house  has  been  built  a  year. 

3.  I  am  writing  a  letter. 

4.  The  letter  is  written. 


THE    EMPHATIC    FORM    OF    THE    VERB 

5.  The  letter  will  be  written  this  morning. 

6.  Frank  has  been  writing  a  letter. 

7.  Boys  were  tossing  a  ball  from  one  to  another. 

8.  A  ball  was  being  tossed  from  one  boy  to  another. 

9.  Far  in  the  distance  every  movement  was  noted. 

10.  Two  men  were  noting  every  movement  in  the  distance. 

11.  A  boy  was  picking  strawberries. 

12.  At  length  the  strawberries  were  picked. 

13.  In  the  dining-room  two  servants  were  quietly  laying  the 
table. 

14.  The  table  had  been  laid  in  the  dining-room. 

15.  That  book  has  not  been  read. 

16.  We  are  reading  history. 

17.  The  expressman  is  bringing  a  parcel  to  our  house. 

18.  A  parcel  was  brought  to  the  house  an  hour  ago. 

19.  Already  the  street-lamps  are  being  lighted. 

20.  A  man  was  rapidly  lighting  the  street-lamps. 

CHAPTER    LXXXIV 

DO   AND    DID   AS   AUXILIARIES 

A  distinctive  verb-phrase  in  common  use  is  formed 
by  uniting  do  or  did  with  the  infinitive  without  its  sign 
to.  This  form  of  expression  is  called  the  Emphatic  Form, 
because  it  is  used  to  give  emphasis  to  the  assertion. 

We  often  employ  it  when  we  wish  to  assert  some- 
thing that  has  been  denied  or  doubted;  as,  "I  do  know 
what  I'm  talking  about";  "I  did  hear  what  you  said"; 
"I  do  know  my  lesson";  "I  did  read  every  page  of  the 
book." 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Do  and  did  are  regularly  used  in  negative  and  inter- 
rogative sentences  with  no  intention  of  being  emphatic; 
as,  "Do  you  believe  me?"  "Didn't  you  attend  the 
concert!"  "I  don't  believe  you."  "I  didn't  attend  the 
concert."  1 

Do  and  did  are  often  used  to  take  the  place  of  a  verb  in  a  pre- 
ceding clause;  as,  "Try  to  write  as  he  does." 


Exercise 
Select  the  emphatic  forms  in  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  Do  you  know  that  the  train  is  waiting? 

2.  I  did  not  hear  the  porter  announce  it. 

3.  The  showers  in  this  district  do  not  last  long. 

4.  My  friend  does  not  care  for  study  ;  what  he  does  care 
for  is  hunting. 

5.  The  captain  was  invited  to  describe  his  life  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  he  did  talk  about  it  for  a  few  minutes,  but  soon 
branched  off  upon  something  else. 

6.  Did  you  ring? 

7.  Does  the  noise  in  the  street  annoy  you  ? 

8.  Where  do  the  boys  stay  when  it  rains? 

9.  Do  the  workmen  understand  what  you  want? 

10.  Does  the  roof  leak? 

11.  It  did  not  give  any  trouble  until  lately. 

12.  I  do  enjoy  travelling. 

13.  Do  not  think  for  a  moment  that  I  prefer  to  stay  here. 

14.  I  do  wish  that  the  steamer  company  would  send  our 
tickets. 

1  The  older  forms,  such  as  I  believe  you  not  ;  Believest  thou  me  ?  are  rarely 
used  except  in  solemn,  formal  speech. 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS  243 

Exercise  %44 

Write  ten  verb-phrases  formed  by  uniting;  various  auxiliaries 
with  the  infinitive  or  the  participles  of  the  following  verbs:— 

Weep,  send,  give,  live,  say,  return,  saw,  make. 


CHAPTER    LXXXV 

DEFECTIVE   AND   IMPERSONAL   VERBS 
DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

In  Chapter  LXXXII  we  saw  that  one  of  the  principal 
parts  of  each  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  there  considered 
was  lacking.  Such  verbs  are  called  Defective. 

Two  of  the  best  examples  of  defective  verbs  in  Eng- 
lish are  must  and  ought. 

Must1  never  changes  its  form.  It  indicates  necessity. 
"You  must  do  what  your  parents  direct"  means  that, 
whether  you  wish  to  do  so  or  not,  you  are  obliged  to  do 
what  your  parents  direct.  Must  is  rarely  used  now 
except  in  the  present  tense. 

Ought2  is  used  with  the  present  infinitive  to  indicate 
present  time,  and  with  the  perfect  infinitive  to  indicate 
past  time. 

Ought  indicates  moral  obligation.  "You  ought  to  do 
what  your  parents  direct,"  means  that  a  sense  of  duty 
should  lead  you  to  do  what  your  parents  direct. 
Should  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  sense;  as,  "You 
should  always  do  what  your  parents  direct." 

Do  not  say,  "He  hadn't  ought  to  do  it,"  when  you 

1  In  Old  English  must  was  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  mot. 

2  Ought  was  once  the  past  tense  of  owe. 


244  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

should  say,  "He  ought  not  to  do  it,"  for  ought  has  no 
participles  and  therefore  cannot  be  combined  with  the 
auxiliary  had. 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS 

When  we  say,  "It  blows,"  "It  pours,"  "It  snows," 
"It  is  stormy,"  "It  is  dark,"  we  use  it  in  a  very  indefi- 
nite sense,  without  referring  to  any  person  or  thing. 
A  verb  used  with  indefinite  it  as  a  subject  is  called  an 
Impersonal  Verb. 

EXPLETIVES 

It  is  sometimes  used  to  introduce  sentences  whose 
real  subject  follows  the  verb.  When  thus  used  it  is 
called  an  Expletive.1 

The  verb  in  this  case  is  not  impersonal  as  in  the  instances  above, 
but  the  subject  it  merely  anticipates  the  real  subject. 

There  is  at  times  used  in  the  same  way,  and  is  then 
called  an  Expletive. 
Examine  the  following  sentences: — 

WITH  THE  EXPLETIVE        WITHOUT  THE  EXPLETIVE 

1.  It  seems  good  to  see  you.     To  see  you  seems  good. 

2.  It  is  pleasant  to  know  that     To  know  that  you  approve  is 

you  approve.  pleasant. 

3.  There  were  many  people       Many  people  were  at  the  fair. 

at  the  fair. 

4.  There  are  millions  of  peo-      Millions    of    people    are     in 

pie  in  New  York.  New  York. 

1  An  expletive  is  really  a  word  used  as  a  "filler."  The  term  is  derived 
from  Latin  words  meaning  to  fill  up  or  fill  out. 


IT    AND    THERE    AS    EXPLETIVES 

What  is  the  real  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  first  sen- 
tence? In  the  second?  In  the  third?  In  the  fourth? 

You  must  be  careful  not  to  confuse  there  used  as  an 
expletive  with  there  used  as  a  simple  adverb  of  place. 

Compare  the  following  sentences:— 

THERE    AS    AN    EXPLETIVE  THERE   AS  A   SIMPLE  ADVERB 

1.  There   seemed    to   be   two     4.  Two    men    seemed    to    be 

men  on  the  mountain.  there. 

2.  There    appeared   to   be    a     5.  A     hundred     people     ap- 

hundred  people.  peared  to  be  there. 

3.  There     once     reigned     in     6.  A   good  king   named  Al- 

England    a    good    king  fred  once  reigned  there. 

named  Alfred. 

Exercise  %45 

Wherever  it  or  there  is  used  as  an  expletive  rewrite  the  sen- 
tence, omitting  the  expletive  and  underscoring  the  real  subject : — 

1 .  There  has  been  a  fog  here  all  this  week. 

2.  It  is  hard  work  to  row  in  hot  weather. 

3.  It  seems  easy  to  swim,  until  you  try. 

4.  It  is  absurd  to  buy  things  merely  because  they  are 
cheap. 

5.  There  are  ten  thousand  volumes  in  this  library. 

6.  It  was  no  plan  of  mine  to  cross  on  that  thin  ice. 

7.  It  would  have  been  possible  to  pay  a  part  of  his  debts. 

8.  There  was  a  large  audience  at  the  concert  last  evening. 

9.  It  was  his  greatest  ambition  to  go  to  college. 

10.  There  had  been  a  crowd  of  people  watching  the 
boat-race. 


246  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

11.  There  is  a  good  hotel  not  far  from  here. 

12.  It  would  be  desirable  to  have  the  exact  truth  known. 
IB.  But  it  is  not  pleasant  to  have  to  listen  to  gossip. 

14.  There  are  handsome  rugs  on  the  floor. 

15.  It  is  unnecessary  to  invite  him  to  come  again. 

16.  It  was  his  rule  to  walk  four  miles  every  day. 

17.  There  is  a  stranger  at  the  door. 

18.  It  seemed  strangely  familiar  to  hear  the  old  songs  once 
more. 

CHAPTER    LXXXVI 

A    REVIEW 

Write  the  principal  parts  of  lie  (to  lie  down),  lay, 
sit,  set,  see,  ate,  took,  do.  Put  into  a  written  sentence 
the  past  and  the  past  perfect  tense  of  each  of  these 
verbs. 

Define  indicative  mood,  imperative  mood,  and  sub- 
junctive mood.  Write  three  sentences  to  illustrate  the 
use  of  the  indicative  mood  and  three  to  illustrate  the 
use  of  the  imperative. 

Conjugate  the  verb  be  in  the  indicative  and  subjunc- 
tive present  and  past. 

How  is  the  subjunctive  mood  used?  Write  three 
sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  following :  The  sub- 
junctive used  to  express  a  wish  and  the  subjunctive 
used  to  express  a  condition  contrary  to  fact.  Explain 
the  difference  between  a  main  clause  and  a  dependent 
clause.  In  the  sentences  that  you  write  to  illustrate 
the  subjunctive  used  to  express  condition  contrary  to 
fact,  which  is  the  main  and  which  the  dependent  clause  f 


A    REVIEW    OF    VERBS  247 

Using  lie  as  the  subject,  write  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  verb  see  in  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 
mood  in  the  active  and  the  passive  voice;  that  is, 
write  a  Synopsis  of  the  verb. 

Write  all  the  imperative  forms,  the  infinitives,  and 
the  participles  of  the  same  verb. 

Wliat  are  auxiliary  verbs?  W7hy  are  they  so  im- 
portant in  English?  Explain  the  formation  of  the 
tenses  of  the  passive  voice.  Name  auxiliaries  that  you 
find  in  the  conjugation  of  any  verb  in  the  active  voice ; 
in  the  passive  voice. 

What  auxiliaries  are  used  to  form  potential  verb- 
phrases?  Write  twenty  potential  verb-phrases  and 
use  five  of  them  in  sentences.  Write  four  sentences 
to  illustrate  the  difference  in  meaning  between  may 
and  can. 

Using  he  as  subject,  write  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  verb  read  in  the  progressive  form  for  all  the 
tenses  of  the  indicative  active.  What  is  the  difference 
in  form  between  passive  verb-phrases  and  progressive 
verb-phrases  in  the  active  voice?  Illustrate. 

Write  five  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  follow- 
ing uses  of  the  auxiliary  do:  In  emphatic  forms,  in 
negative  sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences. 
Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  doesn't,  and 
three,  each  containing  don't. 

Define  expletive,  defective  verb,  and  impersonal  verb. 
Write  five  sentences  introduced  by  the  expletive  there, 
and  five  introduced  by  the  expletive  it. 


248  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


CHAPTER    LXXXVII 

THE   NOMINATIVE  ABSOLUTE 

You  have  grown  familiar  with  the  idea  that  sen- 
tences consist  almost  entirely  of  three  elements:  The 
subject  and  its  modifiers,  the  predicate  and  its  modi- 
fiers, and  complements  and  their  modifiers. 

In  addition  to  these  you  have  studied  independent 
elements,  such  as  interjections  and  the  nominative  in- 
dependent by  direct  address.  Independent  elements 
are  so  called  because  they  have  no  grammatical  rela- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

An  independent  use  of  the  noun  hitherto  undiscussed 
in  this  book  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  italicized 
parts  of  the  following  pairs  of  sentences : — 

1.  The  storm  having  subsided,  we  started  for  our  drive. 
When  the  storm  had  subsided,  we  started  for  our  drive. 

2.  Wolfe  having  succeeded  in  scaling  the  rocky  heights 
above  Quebec,  the  capture  of  the  city  was  certain. 

When  Wolfe  succeeded  in  scaling  the  rocky  heights  above 
Quebec,  the  capture  of  the  city  was  certain. 

3.  The  assault  failing,  the  army  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 
As  the  assault  failed,  the  army  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 

In  the  first  example  of  the  first  pair  we  notice  two 
distinctive  things  about  the  noun  storm:  it  is  used 
with  the  participle  having  subsided  and  it  has  no 
grammatical  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

In  the  first  example  of  the  second  pair  the  noun 


THE    NOMINATIVE    ABSOLUTE  249 

Wolfe  is  used  with  the  participle  having  succeeded, 
and  is  without  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

With  what  participle  is  assault,  in  the  first  example 
of  the  third  pair,  used! 

A  noun  or  pronoun  modified  by  a  participle  (expressed 
or  implied)  and  having  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  is  in  the  Nominative  Absolute. 

By  comparing  the  sentences  in  the  pairs  above,  you 
will  see  clearly  that  though  the  noun  used  in  the  nomi- 
native absolute  has  no  grammatical  relation  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  the  entire  phrase  of  which  the  noun 
forms  a  part  is  equivalent  to  an  adverbial  clause. 

The  nominative  absolute  should  not  be  used  to  excess,  but 
it  occasionally  serves  to  give  variety  of  expression. 

Exercise  ®46 

Find  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns  used  in  the  nominative  abso- 
lute. With  what  participle  is  each  used? 

1.  He  went  up  the  lonely  path,  his  fear  rising  with  every 
step. 

2.  The  steamer  having  gone,  the  party  had  to  wait  three 
days. 

3.  A  strong  wind  having  risen  in  the  night,  the  waves  were 
very  high. 

4.  This  done,  we  need  remain  no  longer. 

5.  The  coach  stopped  suddenly,  one  of  the  traces  having 
broken. 

6.  The  weather  being  very  dry,  all  the  grass  was  brown. 


250  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

7.  In  single  file,  their  hands  tied  behind  their  backs,  the 
prisoners  were  driven  along  the  narrow  path. 

8.  He  stood  silent  before  the  king,  his  head  bowed  in 
submission. 

9.  These  demands  once  granted,  what  may  we  not  expect  ? 
10.  You  sleep  in  peace,  the  tyrant  being  slain. 

Exercise  247 

Rewrite  the  sentences  in  Exercise  246,  changing  the  nominative- 
absolute  phrases  to  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses. 

CHAPTER    LXXXVIII 

THE  OBJECTIVE   COMPLEMENT 

Some  transitive  verbs  take  two  objects,  the  second 
of  which  is  required  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
predicate. 

Examine  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :— 

1.  The  Indians  called  the  river  Niagara. 

2.  The  company  chose  Lincoln  captain. 

3.  La  Salle  made  Tonti  his  lieutenant. 

4.  All  the  world  deemed  Gladstone  a  great  statesman. 

5.  The  boys  called  the  umpire  unfair. 

If  we  omit  from  each  of  the  examples  the  word  in 
italics,  the  sense  is  incomplete.  To  say,  "The  Indians 
called  the  river,"  "The  company  chose  Lincoln,"  "La 
Salle  made  Tonti,"  "All  the  world  deemed  Gladstone," 
"The  boys  called  the  umpire,"  is  to  tell  nothing  definite. 


THE    OBJECTIVE    COMPLEMENT         251 

We  naturally  expect  a  word  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  and  to  explain  its  object.  What  did  the 
Indians  call  the  river!  Niagara  tells  us,  and  not  only 
explains  the  noun  river,  which  is  the  object  of  the  transi- 
tive verb  called,  but  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb. 
We  therefore  call  it  the  Objective  Complement.  Show 
how  captain  explains  the  object  Lincoln  and  completes 
the  meaning  of  the  verb.  Why  are  lieutenant  and 
statesman  objective  complements'? 

In  the  fifth  sentence  the  adjective  unfair  also  is 
called  an  objective  complement. 

We  have,  then,  the  rule:— 

A  word  that  explains  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  and 
completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb  is  called  an  Objective 
Complement. 

Verbs  of  appointing,  calling,  choosing,  electing,  mak- 
ing, naming,  regarding,  thinking,  and  some  others  of 
a  similar  meaning,  may  be  followed  by  the  objective 
complement. 

Now  note  what  change  takes  place  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  objective  complement  when  the  verb  be- 
comes passive: — 

The  Indians  called  the  river  Niagara.     (Active.) 

The  company  chose  Lincoln  captain.     (Active.) 

The  river  was  called  Niagara  by  the  Indians.     (Passive.) 

Lincoln  was  chosen  captain  by  the  company.     (Passive.) 

Reviewing  here  the  copula  and  copulative  verbs,  you 
will  see  that  in  the  passive  form  of  the  sentences  the 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

nouns  Niagara  and  captain  are  predicate  nouns,  for 
they  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and  at  the  same 
time  describe  or  explain  the  subject.  How  would  you 
change  the  fifth  sentence  to  the  passive  form!  What 
name  would  you  give  to  the  adjective  in  the  predicate? 

Exercise  %48 

Select  the  objective  complements.  Show  how  each  one  explains 
an  object  of  a  transitive  verb  and  completes  the  meaning  of  the 
verb.  Point  out  the  adjectives  that  are  used  as  objective  comple- 
ments :— 

1.  They  chose  Rawson  director  of  the  new  iron  works. 

2.  They  called  him  superintendent. 

3.  The  company  made  Coleman  foreman. 

4.  They  deemed  him  the  best  manager  who  had  ever  been 
at  the  factory. 

5.  Some  persons  considered  Randall  a  good  man  for  the 
superintendent's  place. 

6.  Others  regarded  him  as  better  fitted  for  other  work. 

7.  But  everybody  thought  him  trustworthy. 

8.  The  directors  will  probably  appoint  him  paymaster. 

The  objective  complement  is  frequently  preceded  by 
as.  In  which  of  these  sentences  may  it  be  used? 

Exercise  249 
Fill  out  the  blanks  with  objective  complements:— 

1.  The  Indians  thought  Red  Wing  a  great . 

2.  Early  in  the  campaign  they  made  him  their . 

3.  The  people  of  the  United  States  elected  Lincoln . 

4.  All  the  company  agreed  to  appoint  Singleton  . 


PREDICATE    NOUNS    AND    ADJECTIVES       253 

5.  The  foot-ball  team  made  Harry  Gordon   -  -  this 
afternoon. 

6.  The  President  appointed  Charles  Graham  -  . 

7.  We  have  called  this  book  -  . 

8.  The  parents  named  the  boy  -  . 

9.  The  clergyman  pronounced  them  -  . 

Exercise 


1.  Change  Examples  3,  4,  and  5  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter 
to   the   passive   form,  and    underscore   the   predicate   nouns  and 
predicate  adjectives. 

2.  Do  the  same  with  all  the  sentences  in  Exercise  248. 

Exercise  251 

Select  the  predicate  nouns  and  predicate  adjectives,  and  explain 
each  :— 

1.  The  savages  were  deemed  unworthy  of  notice. 

2.  New  York  was  formerly  called  New  Amsterdam. 

3.  Edward  the  Third's  eldest  son  was  also  named  Edward. 

4.  Washington  was  chosen  commander  of  the  little  army. 

5.  Manton  has  been  elected  captain  of  the  foot-ball  team. 

6.  The  President  has  appointed  John  Bryan  postmaster. 

7.  Henry  Orton  has  been  made  administrator  of  his  broth- 
er's estate. 

8.  Red  Wing  was  called  the  greatest  warrior  in  his  tribe. 

9.  Rachel  was  deemed  unusually  skilful  with  her  needle. 

10.  Of  all  the  contestants  Linton  was  thought  the  most 
likely  to  win. 

11.  The  old  abandoned  camp  has  been  made  a  paradise. 

12.  Simmons   has    been   appointed    superintendent   of  the 
water-works. 


254  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CHAPTER    LXXXIX 

THE  ADVERB 
ADVERBS  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  MEANING 

Notice  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences: — 

1.  The  boys  played. 

2.  The  boys  played  yesterday. 

3.  The  boys  played  there. 

4.  The  boys  played  well. 

5.  The  boys  played  very  little. 

The  words  in  italics  are  adverbs  because  they  modify 
the  meaning  of  the  verb  played. 

Since  yesterday  answers  the  question,  when?  it  is 
called  an  Adverb  of  Time.  Adverbs  that  answer  the 
question,  when?  include  always,  early,  ever,  often,  sel- 
dom, soon,  to-day,  to-morrow,  and  many  others. 

There  answers  the  question  where?  and  is  called  an 
Adverb  of  Place.  Some  other  adverbs  of  place  are  here, 
anywhere,  someivhere,  yonder. 

Well  is  an  Adverb  of  Manner  because  it  answers  the 
question  how?  Some  other  adverbs  of  manner  are 
so,  thus,  badly,  clearly,  easily,  smoothly,  gracefully, 
slowly,  rapidly,  awkwardly,  carelessly. 

Many  adverbs  of  manner  ending  in  ly  are  formed 
from  adjectives. 

Little  is  an  Adverb  of  Degree  because  it  answers  the 
question  how  much?  Some  other  adverbs  of  degree 


ASSERTIVE    ADVERBS  255 

are  very,  much,  almost,  enough,  too,  so,  somewhat, 
rather,  uncommonly,  quite,  entirely. 

According  to  meaning,  therefore,  adverbs  may  be 
classified  as  adverbs  of  time,  place,  manner,  and  degree. 

Some  words  have  the  same  form  both  as  adjectives 
and  adverbs.  For  example,  fast,  hard,  little,  long,  loud, 
much,  wide,  and  so  on. 

ASSERTIVE  ADVERBS 

As  you  learned  in  Chapter  XX,  adverbs  modify 
verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs.  But  there  are  ad- 
verbs that  modify  the  meaning,  not  of  single  parts  of 
speech,  but  of  the  thought  expressed  in  the  entire  clause 
or  sentence.  These  are  called  Assertive  Adverbs.  Indeed, 
perhaps,  possibly,  certainly,  surely,  and  some  others 
may  be  used  as  Assertive  Adverbs.  For  example, 
"This  is,  indeed,  so  clear  that  it  needs  no  illustration." 

Yes  and  No  are  sometimes  called  adverbs,  but  they 
are  equivalent  to  an  entire  sentence,  and  may  be  called 
Sentence-Adverbs.1  If,  for  instance,  some  one  asks,  "Do 
you  like  Longfellow's  poetry!"  you  are  likely,  in  giv- 
ing an  affirmative  answer,  to  use  the  single  word 
"Yes,"  which  stands  for  the  whole  sentence,  "I  like 
Longfellow's  poetry."  The  assertive  adverbs  are  in 
many  cases  sentence-adverbs. 


Exercise 
From  the  following  adjectives  form  adverbs  of  manner  :  — 

Easy,  constant,  steady,  industrious,  pleasant,  droll,  comical, 
awkward,    gaudy,    courteous,    elegant,    beautiful,    graceful, 
1  This  term  is  borrowed  from  Sweet's  New  English  Grammar. 


256  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

dainty,   happy,  quiet,   slow,  quick,   quaint,   smart,   playful, 
witty. 

Exercise 


Fill  out  the  blanks  with  adverbs.    What  part  of  speech  does 
each  modify  I 

1.  -  this  morning  two  robins  fought  -  in  the 
road. 

2.  There  was  nothing  that  Larry  wanted  -  than  this. 

3.  He  -  behaved  himself  -  . 

4.  The  mother  watched  her  daughter  -  . 

5.  We  understand  him  -  . 

6.  Show  me  -  you  do  it. 

7.  He  will  -  arrive  on  the  noon  train. 

8.  School  opens  -  at  nine  o'clock. 

9.  The  boat  drifted  --  down  the  stream. 

10.  We  -  misjudge  our  best  friends. 

11.  The  sun  shone  -  . 

12.  This  is  the  decision  to  which  I  have  -  come. 

13.  I  have  eaten  -  . 

14.  Montgomery  was  -  nearing  the  scene. 

15.  Winslow  had  been  working  -  in  the  library. 

16.  He  stopped  -  . 

17.  Lucinda  laughed  -  in  reply. 


Exercise 
Select  the  adverbs.    What  word  does  each  modify? 

1.  We  rode  directly  toward  the  encampment,  over  the  arid 
plains  and  barren  hills. 

2.  Anxious  to  see  the  sport,  I  galloped  forward. 


PHRASAL    ADVERBS  257 

3.  Suddenly  my  bridle  was  seized,  and  I  was  ordered  to 
dismount. 

4.  I  was  flung  forcibly  to  the  ground,  and  lay  there 
stunned. 

5.  At  length,  I  regained  control  of  my  limbs. 

6.  Then  I  moved  noiselessly  away  from  the  village. 

7.  Now  and  then  I  could  hear  the  low  laughter  of  some 
girl  in  a  neighboring  lodge. 

8.  The  long  limbs  of  the  pines  waved  slowly  up  and  down. 

9.  The  deep  glen  was  completely  shadowed. 

10.  As  I  descended  still  farther,  the  view  changed  rapidly. 

11.  A  vast  white  canopy  of  smoke  partially  obscured  the 
rays  of  the  sun. 

12.  I  could  see  the  valley  below,  alive  with  Indians  passing 
rapidly  through  it. 

13.  Slowly,  hour  after  hour,  that  weary  afternoon  wore 
away. 

Exercise  255 
Use  in  sentences  some  of  the  following  adverbs  :— 

Often,  easily,  almost,  somewhere,  possibly,  perhaps,  rather, 
carelessly,  somewhat,  certainly,  again,  yesterday,  then,  there. 

PHRASAL  ADVERBS 

There  are  some  phrases  that  are  always  used  like 
adverbs,  and  are  therefore  called  Phrasal  Adverbs.  These 
include  the  following  :-* 

Again  and  again,  at  all,  at  best,  at  last,  at  least,  at> 
length,  at  once,  loy  all  means,  Toy  far,  by  and  by,  for 
good,  in  and  out,  in  general,  in  short,  in  the  main,  in 


258  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

vain,  now  and  then,  of  course,  one  ~by  one,  out  and  out, 
through  and  through,  and  many  others. 


Exercise 
Write  ten  sentences,  using  in  each  a  phrasal  adyerb. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS 

Some  adverbs  admit  of  comparison,  like  adjectives  ; 
as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest;  clearly,  more  clearly,  most 
clearly. 

Most  adverbs  of  one  syllable  form  the  comparative 
and  superlative  degree  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
positive  ;  but  adverbs  of  more  than  one  syllable  usually 
form  their  comparative  and  superlative  degree  by 
using  more  and  most  with  the  positive. 

Some  adverbs  have  an  irregular  comparison.  They 
include  the  following:  — 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

badly,  ill  worse  worst 

far  farther,  further  farther,  furthest 

late  later  latest,  last 

little  less  least 

much  more  most 

well  better  best 

Many  adverbs  are  from  their  meaning  incapable  of 
comparison.  For  example,  once,  yesterday,  now,  here- 

after. 

INTERROGATIVE  ADVERBS 

When  adverbs  are  used  to  ask  questions  they  are 
called  Interrogative  Adverbs.  The  italicized  words  in 


CONJUNCTIVE   ADVERBS 


259 


the  following  sentences  are  sometimes  used  as  inter- 
rogative adverbs: — 


When 

Where 

Why 

Whither 

How 


"  is  he  going? 


When 
Why 
Whence 
How 


is  he  coming? 


Exercise 


Select  the  words  used  as  interrogative  adverbs.  What  does 
each  modify  2 

1.  Where  have  you  seen  this  book  before? 

2.  When  did  your  letter  come? 

3.  How  has  the  sea  bathing  been  this  year? 

4.  Whence  has  this  trouble  come? 

5.  Why  have  you  stayed  away  so  long? 

6.  When  are  you  going  home? 

7.  How  can  you  find  the  road  in  the  dark? 

8.  Where  do  you  make  the  first  turn? 

9.  Why  must  you  go  to-night? 

10.  "  Whither  goes  this  messenger?  "  says  the  Duke  in  the 
play. 

CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS 

In  the  sentence,  "I  do  not  know  where  he  lives,"  the 
word  where  is  used  to  connect  the  dependent  clause 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  If  it  did  nothing  but 
connect  we  should  call  it  a  conjunction.  But  it  also 
modifies  the  verb  lives,  and  thus  has  an  adverbial  use. 


260  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

We  therefore  call  it  a  Conjunctive  Adverb.  Some  of  the 
more  common  conjunctive  adverbs  are  when,  where, 
how,  why,  since,  and  while. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  may  be  expanded  to  a  phrase.  Thus, 
ee  Show  me  how  you  do  it "  becomes  "  Show  me  in  what  way  you  do 
it."  Try  to  expand  other  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Exercise  258 

Select  the  conjunctive  adverbs.  What  clause  does  each  connect 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  2  What  verb  in  the  dependent  clause 
does  each  modify? 

1.  When  money  is  plentiful  prices  are  high. 

&.  Maxon  saw  where  the  road  made  a  sudden  turn. 

3.  Do  you  understand  why  there  is  no  game  to-day  ? 

4.  A  careful  sailor  knows  when  he  must  take  in  sail. 

5.  Where  the  cove  was  sheltered  the  water  was  still. 

6.  When  Arthur  stopped  there  was  a  long  pause. 

7.  No  one  knows  how  we  reached  home. 

8.  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth,  and  thou  hearest  the 
sound  thereof,  but  canst  not  tell  whence  it  cometh  and  whither 
it  goeth. 

9.  Brooke  showed  Tom  how  he  should  hold  the  boat. 

10.  Do  you  remember  where  you  left  the  tickets? 

11.  Tell  me  how  he  was  hurt. 

12.  Every  one  knew  why  the  game  was  stopped. 

13.  My  rose-bushes  have  not  done   well   since  they   were 
trimmed. 

14.  You  should  have  been  here  when  the  band  played. 

15.  Can  any  one  tell  whither  our  world  is  moving? 


NOUNS    USED    AS    ADVERBS  261 

DOUBLE  NEGATIVES 

Remember  that  two  negatives  are  equal  to  one  affirma- 
tive. "I  don't  make  no  mistakes  in  spelling,"  really 
says  the  contrary  of  what  the  speaker  intends.  "He 
is  not  unacquainted  with  the  rules  of  grammar,"  means 
"He  is  acquainted  with  the  rules  of  grammar." 

NOUNS  USED  AS  ADVERBS 

In  Chapter  XXIII  you  learned  that  nouns  are  some- 
times used  as  adverbs.  What  tests  were  given  for 
determining  when  nouns  are  so  used? 

Exercise  859 
Find  the  nouns  used  as  adverbs: — 

1.  Wait  a  minute,  will  you? 

2.  After  breakfast  walk  a  mile. 

3.  The  engine  ran  three  months  without  a  break. 

4.  In  some  places  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  a  mile  deep. 

5.  Our  train  stopped  only  three  minutes  in  Philadelphia. 

6.  The  lion  sprang  several  feet  into  the  air. 

7.  You  ought  to  have  been  here  last  night. 

8.  This  hotel  has  been  built  ten  years. 

9.  In  some  states  the  law  requires  that  heavy  wagons  shall 
have  tires  four  inches  wide. 

10.  That  stone  wall  is  twelve  feet  high. 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


CHAPTER    XC 

THE   PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE  AND  THE  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE 

In  the  chapter  on  the  objective  complement  (p.  251) 
we  found  that  verbs  of  making,  calling,  choosing,  and 
the  like  take  a  second  objective  word  to  explain  the  mean- 
ing of  the  object,  and  this  second  objective  word  is 
called  the  objective  complement.  When  these  verbs 
are  made  passive  the  objective  complement  becomes  a 
predicate  noun,  and  an  adjective  used  as  an  objective 
complement  becomes  a  predicate  adjective. 

THE   PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE 

The  predicate  noun  must  always  agree  in  case  with 
the  subject  which  it  describes  or  explains.  In  other 
words,  the  predicate  noun  must  always  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case  because  the  subject  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

This  rule  is  not  so  important  when  a  noun  is  used 
after  the  copula,  because  in  nouns  the  form  of  the 
nominative  case  is  like  that  of  the  objective  case;  but 
when  a  pronoun  follows  the  copula  the  rule  will  help 
you  to  use  the  correct  form.  To  understand  this  better 
examine  the  following  examples:— 

CORRECT  FORMS  INCORRECT  FORMS 

It  is  I.  It  is  me. 

It  is  he.  It  is  him. 

It  is  she.  It  is  her. 

It  is  they.  It  is  them. 


THE    PREDICATE    NOMINATIVE 

Since  the  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  must  be  in  the 
same  case  with  the  subject,  the  nominative  form  of  the 
pronoun  must  be  used  in  each  of  the  examples  cited. 

The  nominative  is  used  after  the  infinitive  in  such  a 
sentence  as,  "It  seemed  to  be  he;"  the  objective  is  used 
in  such  a  sentence  as,  "I  thought  it  to  be  him" 

The  verb  of  course  always  agrees  with  its  subject 
and  not  with  the  predicate  nominative.  Hence  we 
must  say,  "The  two  are  one." 

NOTE. — "//  is  me,"  "It  was  me"  may  sometimes  be  heard  in  con- 
versation from  speakers  otherwise  careful,  but  such  forms  as  "It  was 
him"  etc.)  are  avoided  by  every  one  pretending  to  be  educated  at  all. 

Exercise  %60 

Referring  to  Chapter  LXXXVIII,  write  six  sentences  each  con- 
taining a  noun  used  as  an  objective  complement.  Change  each  sen- 
tence to  the  passive  form,  and  underscore  the  predicate  nominatives. 

Exercise  %61 
Point  out  and  explain  the  predicate  adjectives:— 

1.  Markham  was  considered  most  fit  for  the  position. 

2.  He  is  deemed  very  skilful. 

3.  Kirkham  was  thought  too  young. 

4.  He  has  been  kept  very  anxious  for  the  last  few  days. 

5.  He  will  be  left  very  poor  if  he  gets  nothing. 

6.  Girton  was  made  uneasy  by  some  unfounded  reports. 

7.  He  was  even  called  dishonest. 

8.  He  will  doubtless  be  proved  innocent. 


264  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  WITH  COPULATIVE  VERBS 

With  certain  verbs,  like  feel,  look,  smell,  sound,  and 
taste,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  know  whether  to  use 
an  adjective  or  an  adverb.  Study  the  following  ex- 
amples : — 

1.  Look  at  the  matter  thoughtfully  before  you  go  further. 

2.  Washington  looked  thoughtful. 

The  adverb  thoughtfully  is  correctly  used  because  it 
modifies  the  verb  look.  But  in  the  second  example 
thoughtful  does  not  modify  the  verb.  It  does  not  show 
how  Washington  looked  at  anything,  but  describes  the 
subject  Washington.  He  was  thoughtful  or  at  least  ap- 
peared to  be.  Thoughtful  is  therefore  an  adjective. 

In  other  terms,  if  the  modifying  word  modifies  the 
verb  it  must  be  an  adverb;  but  if  it  modifies  the  subject 
it  must  be  an  adjective. 

We  properly  say,  then,  "The  apple  tastes  sweet," 
for  this  means  the  same  thing  as  "The  apple  is  sweet 
to  the  taste,"  where  the  word  sweet  modifies  apple. 

As  a  general  rule,  whenever  we  may  substitute  some 
form  of  be  for  the  copulative  verb,  the  adjective  and 
not  the  adverb  should  be  used. 


Exercise 

Fill  out  the  blanks  with  adjectives  or  adverbs,  and  in  every 
case  give  reasons  for  your  choice:— 

1.  Those  clouds  appear  . 

2.  The  stove  looks . 

3.  I  feel  very for  your  loss. 


PREDICATE    NOUNS    AND    ADJECTIVES      265 

4s.  You  seem  more than  I  should  be. 

5.  This  lesson  seems . 

6.  The  weather  this  morning  appears  . 

7.  This  lemon  tastes . 

8.  The  old  trapper  looked  at  the  newcomer. 

9.  Most  of  the  orange  crop  remains . 

10.  That  milk  looks . 

11.  Sea  water  tastes . 

12.  The  soldier  lay  on  the  ground. 

1&.  Gertrude  always  appears in  company. 

14.  The  new  bell  sounds . 

15.  I  wish  that  dog  would  not  look  so at  us. 

16.  On  examination  the  beggar's  story  proved . 

17.  The  wind  is  growing . 

18.  The  poor  girl  was  left . 

Exercise  263 

Point  out  the  subjects,  the  copulas  and  copulative  verbs,  and 
the  predicate  noun  and  the  predicate  adjectives  :— 

1.  The  heat  was  intense. 

2.  The  dogs  lay  panting  on  the  ground, — too  languid  even 
to  growl. 

3.  I  was  thirsty  and  knelt  down  by  the  little  stream  to 
drink. 

4.  That  day  was  the  first  of  August. 

5.  The  next  morning  dawned  chill,  damp,  and  dark. 

6.  The  camp  soon  became  alive  with  the  bustle  of  prepara- 
tion. 

7.  The  country  in  front  looked  wild  and  broken. 


266  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

8.  The  woods  were  fresh  and  cool  in  the  early  morning. 

9.  The  scene  appeared  grand  and  imposing. 

CHAPTER    XCI 

WORDS   USED  AS   VARIOUS    PARTS  OF   SPEECH 

In  preceding  pages  you  have  often  noted  how  the 
same  word  may  be  used  as  one  part  of  speech  in  one 
sentence  and  as  a  different  part  of  speech  in  another 
sentence.  You  may  well  test  your  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar by  trying  to  put  into  sentences  of  your  own  the 
following  words  used  as  various  parts  of  speech.  Some 
of  these  words  may  be  used  as  two  parts  of  speech, 
some  as  three,  and  others  as  four : — 

All,  above,  about,  after,  as,  before,  both,  but,  either, 
enough,  except,  fast,  for,  like,  much,  near,  only,  since,  still, 
that,  what,  which,  while,  who,  why,  yet. 

In  this  work  you  will  find  a  good  dictionary  very 
helpful. 

NOTE. — The  extent  to  which  this  work  should  be  carried  may  be  left 
to  the  teacher. 

CHAPTER    XCII 

PARSING 

From  the  beginning  of  this  book  to  the  present 
.chapter  the  one  question  that  has  been  kept  before  you 
is  this:  How  are  words  used  in  sentences?  If  a  word 
is  used  as  a  name  we  call  it  a  noun,  if  it  is  used  to 


PARSING  267 

make  an  assertion  we  call  it  a  verb,  and  so  on  for  the 
six  remaining  parts  of  speech.  Now,  when  we  classify 
a  word  as  one  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  show  its  rela- 
tion to  other  words  in  the  sentence  we  are  said  to  parse 
it.  For  instance,  we  may  tell  in  detail  the  properties 
and  relations  of  words  in  some  such  way  as  the  fol- 
lowing outline  suggests: — 

1.  In   parsing   a  noun  tell   its   kind    (common    or 
proper),  gender,  number,  and  case. 

Since  every  noun  used  as  a  subject  takes  a  verb  in  the  third 
person,  there  is  little  use  in  requiring  the  pupil  to  name  the 
person  of  nouns.  As  for  gender,  it  need  not  be  given  if  the 
noun  is  neuter,  but  only  when  it  is  masculine  or  feminine. 

2.  In  parsing  an  adjective  tell  its  degree  of  com- 
parison and  what  it  modifies. 

3.  In  parsing  a  pronoun  tell  its  kind,  gender,  per- 
son, number,   and  case.     If  it  is  a  relative  pronoun 
name  its  antecedent  and  explain  its  agreement  there- 
with in  gender,  person,  and  number.    If  it  is  an  inter- 
rogative pronoun  tell  its  number  and  case. 

4.  In  parsing  a  verb  tell  whether  it  is  strong  or  weak, 
transitive  or  intransitive,  and  name  its  voice,  mood, 
tense,  person,  number,  and  subject. 

5.  In  parsing  an  adverb  tell  its  kind  and  what  it 
modifies. 

In  some  cases  the  teacher  may  easily  waste  time  by  requiring 
pupils  to  determine  whether  a  given  word  is  a  conjunction  or  a 
conjunctive  adverb. 


268  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

6.  In  parsing  a  preposition  point  out  the  words  be- 
tween which  it  shows  relation. 

7.  In  parsing  a  conjunction  tell  its  kind  (coordinate 
or  subordinate)  and  point  out  what  words  or  groups 
of  words  it  connects. 

8.  Why  is  the  word  an  interjection  1 

This  scheme  of  parsing  omits  many  minor  details. 
But  simple  as  it  is,  a  still  simpler  scheme  suffices  to 
show  the  essential  relations  of  the  words  in  a  sentence. 
We  may  therefore  save  much  time  by  confining  our- 
selves to  such  relations.  For  instance,  in  parsing  the 
various  parts  of  speech  it  is  enough  to  answer  the 
following  questions: — 

Noun. — In  what  case  is  it? 

Pronoun. — Of  what  kind  and  in  what  case  is  it? 

Adjective. — What  noun  or  pronoun  does  it  modify? 

Verb. — Is  it  complete  in  meaning,  and  if  not,  what  is 
its  complement!  What  is  its  subject? 

Adverb — What  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb  does 
it  modify? 

Preposition. — Between  what  words  does  it  show  re- 
lation? 

Conjunction. — What  words  or  groups  of  words  does 
it  connect? 

Interjection — In  parsing  an  interjection  simply 
name  it. 


EXERCISES  FOR  REVIEW  269 

CHAPTER   XCIII 

A  REVIEW 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a,  noun  or  a 
pronoun  in  the  nominative  absolute.  Name  five  verbs 
that  may  take  an  objective  complement,  and  use  each 
of  these  verbs  in  a  sentence  containing  an  objective 
complement. 

Define  an  adverb.  Write  three  sentences,  each  con- 
taining a  simple  adverb ;  three  containing  interrogative 
adverbs;  three  containing  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Name  five  copulative  verbs.  Use  each  of  them  in  a 
sentence  containing  a  predicate  nominative.  Name  five 
verbs  that,  when  used  in  the  passive  voice,  may  be 
followed  by  a  predicate  nominative  or  a  predicate  ad- 
jective. Put  into  sentences  five  of  these  verbs  in  the 
passive  voice. 

Write  sentences  to  illustrate  the  difference  between 
the  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  and  the  comple- 
ment of  a  copulative  verb. 


PART  III 


CHAPTER    XCIV 

FOR    PARSING,   ANALYSIS,   AND   A   GENERAL   REVIEW 
Exercise 


Review  pages  12-15.  Explain  the  cases  of  all  the 
nouns  in  Exercise  67  (p.  54). 

Exercise  265 

Review  pages  105-108.  In  Exercise  100  (p.  85) 
write  the  possessive  singular  and  plural  of  all  the 
nouns  that  are  the  names  of  living  objects.  Explain 
the  cases  of  all  these  nouns. 

Exercise  266 

Review  pages  126-128.  Give  the  inflection  and  ex- 
plain the  use  of  the  personal  pronouns  in  Exercise  147. 

Exercise  267 

Review  pages  139-145.  In  Exercise  263  compare 
the  adjectives  that  admit  comparison  and  show  what 
noun  or  pronoun  each  modifies.  Use  in  sentences  these 
same  adjectives  or  five  of  your  own  in  the  compara- 
tive and  the  superlative  degree. 

270 


EXERCISES    FOR    REVIEW  271 


Exercise 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraphs  :  — 

A  bell  rang  in  the  long  corridor,  and  the  slight  sound  re- 
called her  to  life  and  action.  She  walked  toward  the  door 
which  led  into  the  sitting-room  and  opened  it  without 
knocking. 

There  was  a  little  balcony  at  her  command.  As  she  noise- 
lessly stepped  out  upon  it,  between  three  and  four  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  she  felt  herself  the  solitary  comrade  of  the  mist- 
veiled  lake  and  of  the  high,  rosy  mountains  on  the  eastern 
verge. 

Exercise  269 

Review  pages  51-53.  In  Exercise  77  (p.  61)  select 
the  prepositional  phrases  and  explain  their  use.  Cor- 
rect the  faulty  grammar  in  the  phrase  "between  you' 
and  I." 

Exercise  270 

Eeview  pages  120-123.  Use  the  following  nouns 
as  subjects  in  simple  declarative  sentences.  Write  the 
possessive  plural  of  each  noun:  Dog,  fox,  horse,  wolf, 
bear,  robin,  canary,  crow,  hawk. 

Exercise  271 

Review  pages  26-28.  Write  twelve  sentences,  each 
containing  an  appositive.  Be  careful  about  the  punc- 
tuation of  the  appositive  phrases.  In  the  first  four 
sentences  make  the  appositives  explain  nouns  in  the 


873  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

nominative  case,  in  the  next  four  make  them  explain 
nouns  in  the  objective  case,  and  in  the  last  four  make 
them  explain  pronouns. 


Exercise 

Review  pages  21-23,  48-50,  66-73.  In  Exercise  93 
(p.  77)  select  the  phrases  and  dependent  clauses  and 
explain  their  use. 

Exercise  273 
Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentence:  — 

Pushing  with  restless  feet  the  snow 
To  right  and  left,  he  lingered  ;  — 

As  restlessly  her  tiny  hands 

The  blue-checked  apron  fingered. 

Exercise  274 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  prepositional 
phrase  used  like  an  adjective. 

Exercise  275 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  prepositional 
phrase  used  like  an  adverb. 

Exercise  276 

Review  pages  131-136.  Add  to  the  following  sen- 
tences explanatory  or  restrictive  clauses.  What  is  the 
difference  in  the  punctuation  of  explanatory  and  of 
restrictive  clauses  ?  1 

1  The  punctuation  of  the  sentences  in  the  exercise  is  purposely  left 
incomplete. 


EXERCISES    FOR    REVIEW  273 

1.  The   breeze   had   been   blowing   strongly    died 

suddenly  down. 

2.  At  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  the  man-of-war  

lay  at  anchor  swung  lazily  with  the  tide. 

3.  On  the  deck  the  sailors were  gathered  in  groups 

looked  like  dark  moving  specks. 

4.  The  officer was  giving  orders  to  the  watch  could 

be  made  out  by  the  help  of  a  glass. 

5.  The  great  guns shone  like  silver  seemed  harmless 

enough. 

6.  In  the  town  the  rumors were  flying  about  were 

of  the  wildest  sort. 

7.  One  man  -    talked  incessantly  was  running  up  and 

down  the  pier  with  papers  in  his  hands. 

Exercise  877 

In  Exercise  82  (p.  67)  explain  the  use  of  commas 
with  relative  clauses. 

Exercise  278 

Find  in  one  of  your  text-books  adverbial  clauses  set 
off  by  one  or  more  commas.  Find  other  adverbial 
clauses  that  are  not  set  off  by  commas.  When  is  the 
comma  used  to  separate  an  adverbial  clause  from  the 
main  clause! 

Exercise  279 
Review  pages  188,  189. 
Write  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — 

Blow,  bring,  burst,  come,  do,  eat,  fly,  freeze,  give,  go,  grow, 
ride,  rise,  shake,  show,  sing,  smile,  steal,  choose. 


274,  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


Exercise 

Put  into  a  sentence  the  indicative  past  or  past  per- 
fect tense  of  each  of  the  following  verbs  :— 

Awake,  begin,  break,  drink,  know,  lay,  ring,  run,  see,  set, 
sink,  sit,  spring,  take,  throw,  write. 

Exercise  281 
Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences:  — 

Down  the  narrow  street  sounded  the  steady  tramp  of  the 
advancing  columns.  The  red  light  of  smoking  torches  flared 
in  the  faces  of  women  looking  timidly  down  from  upper  win- 
dows. No  lights  appeared  in  the  houses.  There  was  no 
shouting.  There  were  no  spectators  in  the  streets.  The  sol- 
diers seemed  to  see  nothing  but  the  figure  of  their  leader 
riding  silently  at  the  head  of  the  regiment. 


Exercise 

Review  pages  35-39.  In  Exercise  140  select  the 
verbs.  Put  into  separate  columns  the  transitive  and 
the  intransitive  verbs. 

Exercise  283 

Eeview  pages  185-187.  In  Exercise  160  put  into 
separate  columns  the  strong  and  the  weak  verbs. 

Exercise  284 

Use  some  of  the  following  verbs  in  sentences,  and 
explain  in  each  case  whether  the  verb  is  used  transi- 
tively or  intransitively:  — 


EXERCISES    FOR    REVIEW  275 

Break,  put,  sail,  share,  endure,  shrink,  rise,  advance,  hasten, 
attack,  happen,  move,  capture,  learn,  assist,  excite,  feel,  reach, 
praise,  draw,  plunge,  favor,  cross,  flatter,  lose,  struggle,  live. 

Exercise  285 

Keview  pages  194-196.  Using  he  as  the  subject, 
write  the  complete  tenses  of  the  following  verbs  in  the 
active  and  the  passive  voice  :  — 

Break,  do,  know,  see,  write. 


Exercise 
Parse  the  words  in  the  following  stanza:  — 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Exercise  287 

Review  pages  40-45.    Select  and  explain  the  copulas 
and  the  copulative  verbs  in  Exercise  2. 

Exercise  288 

Review  pages  205,  206.    Write  five  sentences,  each 
containing  a  verb  that  asserts  a  fact. 

Exercise  289 

Write  five  questions.    In  what  mood  and  tense  is  the 
verb  in  each? 


276  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  WO 

Review  pages  207,  208.  Write  ten  sentences  illus- 
trating the  use  of  the  imperative  mood. 

Exercise  291 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraphs:  — 

Through  the  long,  dull  day  the  rain  fell  in  light  showers. 
The  clouds  hung  low,  but  they  no  longer  descended  in  rush- 
ing torrents.  Gradually  the  fugitives  mustered  courage  to 
peer  out  of  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  cave.  In  the  distance 
they  could  still  see  thin  lines  of  blue  smoke  rising  above  what 
had  been  the  village.  But  the  band  of  raiders  was  already 
miles  away. 

At  nightfall  a  low  whistle  like  the  hoot  of  an  owl  sounded 
in  the  distance.  A  little  later  it  sounded  nearer.  "  That's 
our  messenger,"  said  Hendon.  "  He  can  tell  us  where  the 
raiders  are." 


Exercise 

Review  pages  160-162.  In  what  mood,  tense,  per- 
son, and  number  is  each  of  the  verbs  in  Exercise  78? 
Show  whether  the  verbs  are  transitive  or  intransitive. 

Exercise  293 

Review  pages  178-183.  Write  ten  sentences,  each 
containing  a  participle.  Tell  what  noun  each  participle 
modifies.  Underscore  each  participial  phrase  in  your 
sentences. 


EXERCISES    FOR    REVIEW  277 

Exercise 


Review  pages  171-178.  Write  ten  sentences,  each 
containing  a  verbal  noun.  Explain  the  case  of  each 
noun. 

Exercise  295 

Review  pages  254-261.  In  Exercise  82  (p.  67)  select 
the  adverbs  and  explain  their  use.  Use  in  sentences 
the  following  adverbs  in  the  comparative  and  the  super- 
lative degree:  — 

Well,  smoothly,  rapidly,  slowly,  fiercely. 

Exercise  296 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraph:  — 

The  path  was  a  narrow  trail  notched  in  the  steep  slope  of 
the  mountain.  On  one  side  rose  towering  cliffs  that  lost  them- 
selves in  the  scudding  clouds.  On  the  other  side  the  loose 
rocks  clung  to  the  rocky  wall  as  if  they  feared  that  they  too 
might  plunge  into  the  pale  green  lake  a  mile  below.  Unused 
to  such  danger,  the  women  shuddered  as  the  ponies  went  for- 
ward with  steady  pace.  But  the  little  horses  gave  no  signs 
of  fear  and  munched  contentedly  mouthfuls  of  grass  and 
leaves  that  they  caught  up  in  passing. 

Exercise  297 

Review  pages  55,  56.  Write  five  sentences,  putting 
in  each  a  noun  used  adverbially. 


278  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

Exercise  298 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  adjective  and  an 
adverb?  Illustrate  the  difference  by  writing  ten  sim- 
ple declarative  sentences,  each  containing  an  adjective 
and  an  adverb. 

Exercise  299 

Eeview  pages  35-37,  57-59.  Write  ten  sentences, 
each  having  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object. 

Exercise  300 
Analyze  the  sentences  in  the  following  paragraph:— 

We  began  the  ascent  of  the  mountain  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  for  we  did  not  wish  to  sink  deeply  into  the  snow.  We 
were  tied  together  with  a  rope.  Each  of  us  had  an  axe  and 
a  pole  shod  with  iron.  The  first  mile  or  two  was  made  almost 
in  silence.  Then  the  dawn  began  to  light  up  the  highest 
peaks  and  tinge  the  snow-fields  with  a  ruddy  glow.  Half  an 
hour  later  the  sun  peered  through  a  gap  in  the  mountain  wall 
and  flooded  the  valleys  with  radiance.  Seven  thousand  feet 
below  we  saw  the  images  of  the  flying  clouds  moving  across 
the  blue  lake.  An  eagle  wheeled  just  above  our  heads.  We 
now  rested  for  a  time  and  prepared  for  the  steep  climb  to  the 
still  distant  summit. 

Exercise  301 

Eeview  pages  64,  65.  Write  six  sentences  contain- 
ing interjections.  Remember  to  use  the  exclamation 
point  in  each  sentence. 


EXERCISES    FOR    REVIEW  279 

Exercise  302 

Review  pages  66-77.  In  the  following  sentences 
select  the  clauses  and  explain  their  use : — 

1.  At  the  moment  the  soldier  raised  the  flask  he  saw  a 
thirsty  child  lying  by  the  roadside. 

2.  After  he  had  climbed  for  an  hour  he  again  grew  very 
thirsty. 

3.  While  he  was  hanging  his  flask  to  his  belt  again  he  saw 
a  little  dog  on  the  rock. 

4.  When  he  came  in  sight  of  the  valley  he  saw  a  river 
springing  from  a  new  cleft  of  the  rocks  above  it. 

5.  He  went  out  every  day  after  the  weather  became  settled. 

6.  When  he  reached  his  home  his  father  could  not  recog- 
nize him. 

Exercise  303 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
preceding  exercise. 

Exercise  304 

Make  a  simple  sentence  of  each  clause  in  the  com- 
plex sentences  of  Exercise  83  (pp.  67,  68).  What  con- 
nective is  used  in  each  dependent  clause? 

Exercise  305 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraph:— 

The  moon  was  just  rising.  At  that  moment  the  soft  plash 
of  oars  was  heard,  and  a  light  skiff  cut  through  the  broad 
band  of  moonlight  and  made  for  the  opposite  shore  of  the 


280  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

lake.  The  oarsman  was  a  young  man,  powerfully  built,  and 
wore  no  hat.  He  tossed  his  heavy  dark  hair  as  he  swayed 
backward  and  forward  with  the  steady  swing  of  the  oars.  In 
a  few  minutes  he  landed,  drew  his  boat  out  of  the  water,  and 
hid  it  in  a  dense  thicket  of  willows.  Then  he  gave  a  low 
whistle  and  started  rapidly  up  the  path  leading  to  the  castle. 

Exercise  306 

Review  pages  248-250.  Write  five  sentences,  each 
containing  a  nominative  absolute.  Remember  that  the 
phrase  containing  the  nominative  absolute  should  be 
cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more 
commas. 

Exercise  307 

Rewrite  all  the  sentences  you  wrote  for  the  preced- 
ing exercise,  changing  the  nominative  absolute  phrases 
to  clauses. 

Exercise  308 

Review  pages  62-64.  Write  ten  sentences  to  illus- 
trate the  use  of  the  nominative  independent  by  direct 
address.  Use  quotation  marks  in  every  sentence,  and 
be  careful  about  the  use  of  commas  to  set  off  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  the  nouns  used  independently. 

Exercise  309 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraph: — 

The  spring  night  had  fallen.  The  room  was  hot,  and  she 
threw  a  window  open.  Some  thorns  in  the  garden  below  had 


EXERCISES    FOR    ANALYSIS 

thickened  into  leaf.  They  rose  in  a  dark  mass  beneath  the 
window.  Overhead,  beyond  the  haze  of  the  great  city,  a  few 
stars  twinkled,  and  the  dim  roar  of  London  life  beat  from  all 
sides  upon  the  quiet  corner  which  still  held  the  old  house. 

Exercise  310 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraph:— 

One  of  my  friends  has  recently  bought  a  large  estate  on 
one  of  the  Great  Lakes.  I  visited  him  the  other  day.  He 
spends  much  of  his  time  in  planning  improvements.  He 
keeps  twenty  men  at  work  throughout  the  year.  If  you  were 
to  meet  him  you  would  hardly  suspect  him  to  be  the  owner. 
He  always  dresses  very  plainly.  Some  of  his  men  make  far 
more  display  than  he  does. 

Exercise  311 

Parse  the  words  and  analyze  the  sentences  in  the 
following  paragraph:— 

The  boy  paused  as  he  approached  the  great  river.  Before 
him  lay  the  city  with  its  thousands  of  lights  twinkling  through 
the  darkness.  The  receding  tide  carried  the  rushing  flood  of 
water  through  the  huge  stone  arches  of  the  bridge.  Here 
and  there  he  saw  a  black  vessel  straining  at  its  anchor.  But 
the  roar  of  the  city  streets  was  hushed.  Now  and  then  a 
belated  householder  glanced  at  him  in  passing.  But  the  boy 
said  nothing.  He  felt  more  and  more  that  he  was  alone  in 
the  largest  city  in  the  world. 


APPENDIX 

STRONG  AND   WEAK   VERBS 

The  strong  verbs  were  once  far  more  numerous 
than  they  are  now.  But  during  a  long  period  when 
English  was  almost  wholly  a  spoken  rather  than  a 
written  language,  the  strong  verbs  tended  more  and 
more  to  become  like  the  weak  verbs.  We  notice  the 
tendency  even  now  among  children  and  uneducated 
people  to  use  such  forms  as  growed  and  knowed  for 
grew  and  knew.  Some  verbs  once  strong  are  now 
weak  in  all  their  parts.  Some  strong  verbs  have  taken 
on  a  weak  form  in  the  past  tense  or  the  past  participle, 
and  are  now  partly  strong  and  partly  weak.  A  few 
weak  verbs  have  taken  strong  forms.  Where  there  are 
both  strong  and  weak  forms  for  the  past  tense  or  the 
past  participle  the  strong  forms  are  as  a  rule  more 
commonly  used  in  the  higher,  solemn  style  than  in 
ordinary  speech  or  writing.  Sometimes  the  strong 
form  is  used  as  an  adjective  and  the  weak  form  as  a 
participle. 

For  convenience  of  reference  the  strong  and  the 
weak  verbs  are  here  put  together  in  an  alphabetical 
list  and  their  principal  parts  given.  The  strong  verbs 
and  the  strong  forms  of  weak  verbs  are  printed  in 

283 


284  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

bold-faced  type.  The  reference  after  each  verb  is  to 
the  group  of  verbs  with  which  it  may  be  classed.  In 
the  course  of  centuries  there  has  been  so  much  shift- 
ing of  forms  that  no  classification  is  entirely  satisfac- 
tory. The  same  verb  may  have  forms  in  part  like 
those  of  one  class  and  in  part  like  those  of  another 
class.  But  the  value  of  any  system  that  groups  to- 
gether verbs  of  the  same  sort  is  considerable. 

NOTE. — Owing  to  the  practical  aim  of  this  book  the  archaic  and 
rare  forms  are  kept  in  the  background.  A  few  of  the  more  com- 
mon archaisms  are  added,  but  with  an  indication  of  their  charac- 
ter. The  teacher  should  emphasize  the  fact  that  these  forms  are 
survivals  which  are  common  in  the  Bible  and  in  poetry,  and  now 
and  then  occur  in  proverbial  expressions,  but  which  should  be 
avoided  in  ordinary  speech  and  writing. 

ALPHABETICAL    LIST    OF    STRONG    VERBS 
AND    OF   IRREGULAR1    WEAK    VERBS 

abide 

alight 

am(be) 
arise 

awake 

bear 

beat 

beget 

begin 

1  Many  of  the  apparent  irregularities  are  easily  intelligible  when  the  forms  of  the 
verbs  are  studied  as  they  appear  in  the  older  periods  of  the  language. 

2  Less  common.  3  Born  is  always  used  as  a  passive  participle. 


abode 

abode    i  (b) 

f  alighted 

{alighted 

(alit 

alit2 

was 

been    vm 

arose 

arisen    i  (a) 

(  awoke 

f  awoke 

(  awaked  (rare) 

,     ,     vi  (b) 
(  awaked 

\  bore 

f  borne 

(  born  (brought  forth)  3  r 

beat 

beaten    vm 

begot 

begotten    v  (b) 

began 

begun    in  (a) 

STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 


285 


behold 

beheld 

beheld    vn  (b) 

bend 

bent 

bent    3 

bereave 

f  bereaved 
(  bereft 

{bereaved    _ 
bereft1 

beseech  2 

besought 

besought    9 

jbet 

j  bet                     12 

bet 

(  betted  (rare) 

(  betted  (rare) 

bid  (order) 

jbade 
(  bid  (rare) 

f  bidden 

|  bid  (rare) 

bid  (offer) 

bid 

bid    12 

bind 

bound 

{bounden  (adj.)        /tv 
bound                m(b) 

bite 

bit 

bitten    i  (c) 

bleed 

bled 

bled    4 

bless 

f  blessed 
(  blest 

(blessed 
(  blest 

blow 

blew 

blown    vii  (a) 

break 

broke 

broken    iv 

breed 

bred 

bred    4 

bring 

brought 

brought    9 

build 

built 

built    3 

(  burned 

r  burned     . 

burn 

(  burnt 

(  burnt 

burst 

burst 

(  burst                   1O 
{  bursted  (adj.) 

buy 

bought 

bought    9 

cast 

cast 

cast    12 

catch 

caught 

caught    9 

chide 

chid 

(  chidden      ,  x 
{chid         I(c) 

choose 

chose 

chosen    n 

C  cleaved 

C  cleaved 

cleave  (split) 

•]  cleft 

j  cleft 

(.  clove 

(.  cloven     (adj.) 

cling 

clung 

clung    in  (c) 

1  Bereft  is  not  used  as  an  adjective. 

2  It  will  be  observed  that  some  weak  verbs,  like  the  strong  verbs,  change  the  vowel 
of  the  present  to  form  the  past  tense,  but,  unlike  the  strong  verbs,  they  add  an  end- 
ing.    See  Classes  9  and  11  (p.  294). 


286 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


clothe 

f  clothed 
(clad 

(  clothed    1  ft 
(clad 

come 

came 

come    vin 

cost 

cost 

cost     12 

creep 

crept 

crept     5 

crow 

(  crowed  ) 
(  crew     J 

crowed    8,  vii  (a) 

(  cursed 

|  cursed     - 

curse 

(  curst 

(  curst 

cut 

cut 

cut     12 

dare 

(  dared  } 
(  durst  ) 

dared     1 

deal 

dealt 

dealt    5 

dig 

dug 

dug    in  (d) 

do 

did 

done    vin 

draw 

drew 

drawn    vn  (a) 

(  dreamed 

(  dreamed 

dream 

(  dreamt 

(  dreamt 

f  dressed 

(  dressed     . 

dress 

(  drest 

(  drest 

drink 

drank 

f  drunken  (adj.}         ,  x 
{drunk                  m« 

drive 

drove 

driven    i  (a) 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt     1 

eat 

ate 

eaten    v  (a) 

engrave 

engraved 

f  engraved      g 
(  engraven  l 

fall 

fell 

fallen    vn  (b) 

feed 

fed 

fed    4 

feel 

felt 

felt    5 

fight 

fought 

fought    in  (b) 

find 

found 

found    in  (b) 

flee 

fled 

fled    6 

fling 

flung 

flung    in  (c) 

fly 

flew 

flown    vn  (a) 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne    iv 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten    v  (b) 

1  Used  in  the  solemn 

style. 

STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 


287 


forsake 
freeze 

freight 
get 

gird 

give 
go 

grave 

grind 
grow 

hang 

have 
hear 

heave 
hew 

hide 

hit 

hold 

hurt 
keep 

kneel 

knit 

know 

lade 

lay 
lead 


forsook 

forsaken    vi  (a) 

froze 

frozen    n 

freighted 

(  freighted 
(  fraught  (adj.) 

got 

{gotten1  v(b) 

(  girded 

C  girded 

(girt 

I  girt 

gave 

given    v  (a) 

went  (weak) 

gone    vin 

graved 

f  graved                ~ 
{  graven  (adj.) 

ground 

ground    in  (b) 

grew 

grown    vn  (a) 

|  hung 

f  hung 

(  hanged  (executed) 

(  hanged  (executed) 

had 

had     10 

heard 

heard    6 

(  hove 

f  hove           ,,  . 

(  heaved 

•1  ,          ,    vi  (b) 
(  heaved 

hewed 

(  hewn      8 

(  hewed 

hid 

C  hidden       .  . 
(hid 

hit 

hit     12 

held 

held    vn  (b) 

hurt 

hurt    12 

kept 

kept    5 

(  kneeled 

f  kneeled    1 

I  knelt 

(  knelt 

(  knitted 

C  knitted    . 

(knit 

(knit 

knew 

known    vn  (a) 

laded 

f  laden  (adj.)    R 
(  laded 

laid 

laid    7 

led 

led    4 

in  (c) 


1  Gotten  is  common  in  America,  but  is  much  less  used  in  England. 


288 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


lean 
leap 

learn 

leave 
lend 
let 
lie 

light 

lose 
make 
mean 
meet 

melt 
mow 

pay 

pen  (inclose) 

put 

quit 

read 

rend 

rid 

ride 

ring 

rise 

run 

saw 

say 
see 


(  leaned 

(  leaned     1 

{  leant  1 

(leant1 

(  leaped 

C  leaped            ^ 

(  leapt  (rare) 

(  leapt  (rare) 

(  learned 

(  learned     ^ 

(  learnt 

(  learnt 

left 

left    2 

lent 

lent     3 

let 

let     12 

lay 

lain    v  (c) 

(  lighted 

(•lighted 

(lit 

{lit 

lost 

lost    6 

made 

made     10 

meant 

meant    5 

met 

met    4 

melted 

(  melted                ~ 
(  molten  (adj.} 

mowed 

(  mowed              ~ 
(  mown  (adj.) 

paid 

paid    7 

(  penned 

(  penned     ^ 

(  pent 

(  pent 

put 

put     12 

(  quitted 

(  quitted     ^ 

(quit 

(  quit 

read 

read    4 

rent 

rent    3 

rid 

rid    12 

rode 

ridden    i  (a) 

rang 

rung    in  (a) 

rose 

risen     i  (a) 

ran 

run    in  (a) 

sawed 

(  sawed    , 
<                   o 

(sawn 

said 

said    7 

saw 

seen    v  (a) 

1  Less  common. 

STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 


289 


seek 
seethe 

sell 

send 

set 

sew 
shake 

shape 

shave 

shear 

shed 
shine 

shoe 
shoot 

show 
shred 

shrink 

shut 
sing 

sink 

sit 
slay 

sleep 

slide 

sling 
slink 


sought 
(  sod 

{  seethed 
sold 
sent 
set 

sewed 
shook 

shaped 

shaved 

r  shore  l 
\  sheared 

shed 
(  shone 

(  shined  (rare) 
shod 
shot 

showed 

(  shredded 
(  shred 

shrank 

shut 
sang 

sank 

sat 
slew 

slept 

slid 

slung 
slunk 


8 


sought    9 
f  sodden  (adj.) 
\  seethed 

sold     11 

sent    3 

set     12 
f  sewed 
(  sewn 

shaken    vi  (a) 
J  shaped 
(  shapen  (adj.) 
(  shaved 
(  shaven  (adj.) 
(  shorn  1 
(  sheared 

shed     12 
|  shone    i  (b) 
|  shined  (rare) 

shod    6 

shot    6 
|  shown 
(  showed 
f  shredded 
\  shred 
f  shrunken  (adj.) 
\  shrunk 

shut     12 

sung  in  (a) 
(  sunken  (adj.) 
\  sunk 

sat    v  (c) 

slain    vn  (a) 

slept  5 
(  slidden 
(slid 

slung    in  (c) 

slunk    in  (c) 


ii 


8 


8 


1 


in  (a) 


in  (a) 


1  Used  in  the  solemn  style. 


290 


GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


slit 

smell 

smite 

sow 

speak 

speed 

spell 

spend 

spill 

spin 
spit 

split 

spoil 

spread 
spring 
stand 

stave 

stay 

steal 
stick 
sting 

strew 
stride 

strike 

string 
strive 
swear 

sweat 


slit 

(  smelled 
(  smelt 

smote 

sowed 

spoke 

(  speeded 
(  sped 
J  spelled 
(  spelt 

spent 
(  spilled 
(  spilt 

spun 

spit 

split 

{spoiled 
spoilt 
spread 
sprang 
stood 
C  stove 
(  staved 
J  stayed 
\  staid 
stole 
stuck 
stung 
strewed 
strode 

struck 

strung 
strove 
swore 

(  sweated 
1  sweat 


i  (a) 


v(b) 
1 


slit  12 
j  smelled 
(  smelt 

smitten 
(  sowed 
(  sown 

spoken 
j  speeded 
(  sped 
(  spelled 
(  spelt 

spent 
(  spilled 
I  spilt 

spun    in  (c) 

spit     12 

split     12 
|  spoiled 
(  spoilt 

spread    12 

sprung    in  (a) 

stood    vi  (b) 
f  stove 
(  staved 

{stayed    ^ 
staid 

stolen    iv 
stuck    HI  (d) 
stung    in  (c) 
strewn    8 
stridden    i  (a) 

f  stricken  (adj.) 

\  struck 
strung    in  (c) 
striven    i  (a) 
sworn    iv 

{sweated 
sweat 


1 


1 


1 


vi  (b) 


in  (d) 


STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 


291 


sweep 

swept 

swept    5 

swell 

swelled 

(  swollen  l 
(  swelled 

swim 

swam 

swum    in  (a) 

swing 

swung 

swung    in  (c) 

take 

took 

taken    vi  (a) 

teach 

taught 

taught    9 

tear 

tore 

torn    iv 

tell 

told 

told     11 

think 

thought 

thought    9 

thrive 

|  throve 

(  thrived 

f  thriven 

{thrived      I(a) 

throw 

threw 

thrown    vn  (a) 

tread 

trod 

(  trodden       ,,  x 
{trod          v(b) 

wake 

C  woke 

(  waked 

jw°ke.    vi  (b) 

(  waked 

wear 

worn 

worn    .TV 

weave 

wove 

woven    v  (b) 

wed 

wedded 

j"  wedded     1 

11                      -*• 

(wed 

weep 

wept 

wept    5 

wet 

wet 

wet    12 

f  whetted 

C  whetted     . 

whet 

(whet 

(  whet 

win 

won 

won    in  (c) 

wind 

wound 

wound    in  (b) 

j"  worked 

f  worked 

work 

(  wrought  l 

(  wrought  2 

wring 

wrung 

wrung    in  (c) 

write 

wrote 

written    i  (a) 

NOTE. — The  teacher  may  profitably  use  the  following  lists  as  a  basis 
for  exercises  in  requiring  pupils  to  write  or  give  orally  the  principal 
parts  of  verbs  that  form  their  parts  in  the  same  or  similar  ways.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  the  lists  are  not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 

1  Commonly  an  adjective. 

2  Less  common.     The  adjective  form  is  wrought. 


292  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

CLASSES    OF    STRONG   VERBS 


CLASS  I 

(a) 

arise                   ride 

smite 

strive                  write 

drive                  rise 

stride 

thrive 

(b) 

abide 

shine 

(c) 

bite 

chide 

hide                   slide 

CLASS   II 

choose 

freeze 

seethe 

CLASS   III 

(a) 

begin                  ring 

shrink 

sink                    swim 

drink                  run 

sing 

spring 

(b) 

bind                    fight 

find 

grind                   wind 

(c) 

cling                hang 

slink 

sting              swing            win 

fling                sling 

spin 

string             wring 

(d) 

dig 

stick 

strike 

CLASS   IV 

bear 

break 

steal                      tear 

forbear 

shear 

swear                    wear 

CLASS  V 

(a) 

bid  (order) 

eat 

give                        see 

(b) 

get 

forget 

tread 

beget 

speak 

weave 

(c) 

lie 


sit 


STRONG    AND    WEAK    VERBS 


293 


CLASS  VI 

forsake 

(a) 
shake 

take 

awake               heave 

(b) 
stand 

stave 

W£ 

CLASS  VII 

draw 
blow 

behold 

crow 
fly 

(a) 

(b) 
fall 

grow 
know 

slay 
throw 

hold 

CLASS  VIII 

am                    beat 

come 

do 

CLASSES  OF 

IRREGULAR  WEAK 

VERBS 

CLASS    1 

bless 
burn 
curse 
dare 
dream 
dress 
dwell 

gird 
kneel 
knit 
lean 
leap 
learn 
light 

pen  (inclose) 
quit 
shred 
smell 
speed 
spell 
spill 

spoil 
stay 
sweat 
wed 
whet 

CLASS   2 

bereave 

cleave 

leave 

CLASS   3 

bend 
build 

gird 
lend 

rend 
send 

spend 

CLASS  4 

bleed 
breed 

feed 
lead 

meet 
speed 

read 

GRAMMAR    LESSONS 


lay 


CLASS    5 


creep 
deal 

feel 
keep 

mean 
sleep 

sweep 
weep 

CLASS   6 

hear 

lose 

shoe 

s 

CLASS   7 

shoot 


pay 


say 


stay 


CLASS   8 


crow 
grave 
engrave 
hew 

lade 
melt 
mow 
saw 

sew 
shape 
show 

sow 
strew 
swell 

CLASS   9 

beseech 
bring 

buy 
catch 

seek 
freight 

think 
teach 

work 

CLASS    10 

clothe 

make 

have 

sell 


CLASS    11 


tell 


CLASS    12 


bet 

cut 

rid 

spit 

bid  (offer) 

hit 

set 

split 

burst  1 

hurt 

shed 

spread 

cast 

let 

shut 

thrust 

cost 

put 

slit 

wet 

1  Burst  was  originally  a  strong  verb  and  is  sometimes  classed  so  even  now. 


HINTS    ON   PUNCTUATION 

In  your  study  of  sentences  you  have  from  time  to 
time  been  told  what  marks  of  punctuation  are  to  be 
used  in  certain  cases.  A  few  words  further  on  this 
matter  may  enable  you  to  see  more  clearly  why  you 
should  punctuate  at  all  and  how  the  study  of  grammar 
will  help  you  in  punctuating  accurately.  Marks  of 
punctuation  are  not  to  be  used  at  random,  but  only  for 
the  sake  of  making  a  thought  more  clear.  They  serve 
to  indicate  a  break  of  some  sort,  and  are  therefore  some- 
times known  as  stops.  When  we  speak  we  of  course 
use  no  commas  or  periods  or  other  marks  of  punctua- 
tion, but  we  indicate  by  pauses  or  by  the  inflection  of 
the  voice  what  words  are  to  be  taken  together. 

When  we  have  made  a  complete  statement  we  stop, 
and  in  writing  we  use  a  period.  Hence  the  rule,— 

A  period  is  used  after  a  complete  statement,  that  is, 
after  a  declarative  sentence  (p.  2). 

Questions  (p.  4)  are  conveniently  indicated  to  the 
eye  by  a  question  mark,  or  interrogation  point,  and  ex- 
clamations by  an  exclamation  point  (p.  5).  All  inter- 
jections are  exclamations. 

If  a  sentence  is  brief  and  there  is  no  break  in  the 
thought,  no  mark  of  punctuation  is  needed  until  the 
close.  But,  as  we  have  seen  throughout  this  book, 

295 


296  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

sentences  frequently  contain  independent  elements  or 
modifiers  which  would  hardly  be  missed  if  they  were 
dropped  out  altogether.  All  these  require  to  be  set  off 
by  one  or  two  commas  to  indicate  that  the  connection 
between  them  and  other  words  in  the  sentence  is  not 
close  enough  to  warrant  their  being  put  together  with- 
out some  mark  of  separation.  For  the  indication  of 
breaks  in  the  sentence  we  use  the  comma  if  the  connec- 
tion is  somewhat  close,  the  semicolon  if  the  connection 
is  less  close,  and  the  colon  if  the  connection  is  slight. 
The  precise  marks  to  be  used  in  the  sentence  are  in 
some  measure  a  matter  of  judgment,  since  there  is  often 
more  than  one  way  of  correctly  punctuating  the  same 
sentence. 

We  now  gather  together  the  various  suggestions  on 
punctuation  that  are  scattered  throughout  the  book.  It 
is  important  to  note  that  you  should  not  leave  the 
marks  of  punctuation  until  you  have  finished  writing, 
and  then  add  them  as  an  after-thought.  You  should 
punctuate  as  you  write,  and  unless  you  have  properly 
punctuated  a  sentence  you  should  not  regard  it  as 
finished. 

Appositive  phrases  (p.  27)  are  usually  set  off  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  but  if  the  connec- 
tion is  very  close  the  commas  are  sometimes  omitted. 

Exercise  1 

Write  ten  sentences  to  illustrate  the  use  of  commas  with  apposi- 
tive  phrases. 


HINTS    ON    PUNCTUATION  297 

The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  (p.  63) 
is  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more 
commas. 

Exercise  8 

Write  ten  sentences,  using  in  each  the  nominative  independent 
by  direct  address.  Tour  sentences  will  be  more  interesting  if  you 
will  put  them  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue. 

Commas  are  often  used  to  separate  dependent  clauses 
(p.  75)  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  but  if  the  con- 
nection in  thought  is  very  close  the  comma  should  be 
omitted. 

Exercise  3 

Write  ten  complex  sentences,  using  in  each  a  dependent  clause 
that  must  be  set  off  from  the  main  clause  by  a  comma. 

Exercise  4 

Write  ten  complex  sentences  in  which  the  connection  in 
thought  is  so  close  that  no  comma  should  be  used  to  separate 
the  clauses. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whether  joined 
by  a  connective  or  not,  are  usually  separated  by  a 
comma  (p.  79). 

Exercise  5 

Write  ten  compound  sentences,  using  in  each  a  comma  to  sep- 
arate the  members. 

In  your  reading  you  will  find  compound  sentences 
in  which  semicolons  or  colons  are  used  to  separate  the 
members,  but  in  your  own  writing  you  will  do  well  to 


298  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

avoid  for  the  present  the  use  of  sentences  that  require 
the  use  of  such  marks  of  punctuation. 

An  explanatory  relative  clause  (p.  134)  is  separated 
from  the  main  clause  by  a  comma.  The  restrictive 
relative  clause  is  never  separated  by  a  comma  from 
the  main  clause. 

Exercise  6 

Write  ten  sentences  in  which  you  use  explanatory  relative 
clauses.  Write  ten  sentences  in  which  you  use  restrictive  relative 
clauses. 

Exercise  7 

Copy  from  one  of  your  text-books  five  sentences  containing 
explanatory  relative  clauses,  and  five  containing  restrictive  relative 
clauses. 

The  participial  phrase  (p.  180)  is  often  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  one  or  more  commas. 
When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  absolutely  with  a 
participle  (p.  249),  the  entire  phrase  must  be  set  off 
by  one  or  more  commas. 

Exercise  8 

Write  ten  sentences  to  illustrate  the  use  of  commas  to  set  off 
participial  phrases. 

Exercise  9 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  used  as  the  nomi- 
native absolute  with  a  participle. 

NOTE. — Although  the  rules  that  follow  have  not  been  illustrated  in 
this  book,  they  should  receive  some  attention.  They  have  already  been 
presented  in  "  Language  Lessons,"  the  first  book  of  this  series. 


HINTS    ON    PUNCTUATION  299 

Words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  used  in  a  series,  with- 
out conjunctions  to  connect  them,  are  separated  by 
commas. 

Exercise  10 

Write  four  sentences,  using  in  each  a  series  of  nouns;  four 
sentences,  using  in  each  a  series  of  adjectives ;  and  four  sentences, 
using  in  each  a  series  of  adverbs. 

The  comma  should  be  used  to  introduce  short  quo- 
tations. 

This  rule  refers  to  direct  quotations.  On  page  138 
you  have  illustrations  of  indirect  quotations,  which,  as 
you  remember,  do  not  give  the  exact  language  but  the 
substance  of  what  has  been  spoken  or  written.  Such 
quotations  are  not  introduced  by  a  comma. 

Exercise  11 

Write  ten  sentences,  using  in  each  a  short  direct  quotation. 
Be  careful  in  the  use  of  quotation  marks. 

Exercise  12 

Rewrite  the  sentences  you  wrote  for  the  preceding  exercise, 
and  change  the  direct  to  indirect  quotations.  Do  not  use  quota- 
tion marks  with  indirect  quotations. 

NOTE. — It  is  obvious  that  the  grammar-school  pupil  should  make 
sparing  use  of  the  semicolon,  the  colon,  the  dash,  parentheses,  and 
the  exclamation  point.  The  essential  thing  for  the  beginner  is  that 
he  shall  master  the  proper  use  of  the  comma,  which  presents  the 
principal  difficulty,  and  shall  form  the  habit  of  inserting  the  period, 
the  interrogation  point,  the  apostrophe,  and  quotation  marks  where 
they  regularly  belong. 

Dictation  exercises  and  the  careful  copying  by  pupils  of  selected 


300  GRAMMAR    LESSONS 

pages  of  well-punctuated  books — not  dictated — are  the  most  efficient 
means  for  drilling  large  classes  in  punctuation.  If  the  sentences 
dictated  to  a  class  have  been  previously  copied  upon  the  blackboard,  a 
curtain  may  be  used  to  cover  the  matter  until  the  time  comes  for  cor- 
rection. Pupils  may  then  be  required  to  correct  one  another's  work  by 
comparison  with  the  proper  form  upon  the  blackboard.  If  the  teacher 
desires  to  select  exercises  for  dictation  from  this  book,  the  material  on 
the  following  pages  will  prove  serviceable  : — 20,  25,  27,  54,  56,  61, 
63,  65,,  67,  68,  76,  79,  85,  101,  133,  136,  163,  205,  206,  213,  214, 
222,  253. 


INDEX 


A  or  an,  146,  147 
Abstract  nouns,  105-107 
Active  voice,  156-159 

conjugation  in,  218  ff. 
Adjective  clauses,  68-70 
Adjective  phrases,  21-23 
Adjectives,  19-21,  139-1 52 

articles,  20,  146,  147 

in  predicate,  45,  46 

kinds,  139-141 

comparison,  141-145 

pronouns  used  as  adjectives, 
148-152 

used  as  nouns,  141 

parsing  of,  267,  268 
Adverbial  clauses,  70-72 
Adverbial  phrases,  48-50 
Adverbs,  46-48 

nouns    used    as,  55-57,  125, 
261 

classes  of,  254,  255 

assertive,  255 

sentence,  255 

phrasal,  257 

interrogative,  258 

conjunctive,  260 

comparison  of,  258 


301 


Analysis,  oral  and  graphic,  90- 

96 

Analysis  and  parsing,  270-281 
Antecedent  of  relative  pronoun, 

69,  188  ff. 
Apostrophe,  24  f. 
Appositives,  26  ff. 
Articles,  20,  146,  147 
As,  as  a  relative  pronoun,  132 
Assertive  adverbs,  255 
Ate  and  eaten,  202 
Auxiliary  verbs,  230-233 

shall  and  will,  190-193 

have,  195,  196 

be,  224-226 

do,  241-242 

may,  234,  235 

can,  235 

must,  243 

Be,  conjugation  of,  224-226 
case  after,  262,  263 

Can,  conjugation  of,  235 
Case,  117-123 

nominative,  119 

possessive,  120-123 


302 


INDEX 


Case,   objective,,   124,   125 

of  relative  pronouns,  133 
Clauses,  66-68 

adjective,  68-70 

adverbial,  70-72 

as  nouns,  72,  73 

independent  and   dependent, 
74 

in  compound  sentences^  78 

analysis  of,  94-96 
Cognate  object,  159 
Collective  nouns,  108,  109 
Common  gender,  115 
Common  nouns,  13-15,  105  if. 
Comparative  degree,  142 
Comparison 

of  adjectives,  141-145 

of  adverbs,  258 
Complement,  meaning  of,  41 
Complete  tenses,  194-198 
Complex  sentences,  74-77,  81  if. 

analysis  of,  94,  95 
Compound    personal  pronouns, 
129-131 

used  for  emphasis,  129 

reflexive  use,  129 
Compound  relatives,  136 
Compound  sentences,  77-79 
Conjugation  of  the  active  voice, 

218  ff. 
Conjunctions,  80-83 

co-ordinate,  80,  81 

correlative,  81 
subordinate,  81 
phrasal,  82 


Conjunctive  adverbs,  260 
Co-ordinate     conjunctions,    80, 

81 

Copula,  40-42 

Copulative  verbs,  41,  264-266 
Correlative  conjunctions,  81 

Declarative  sentences,  1-3 
Defective  verbs,  243 
Definite  article,  20,  146,  147 
Demonstrative  adjectives,  151, 

152 
Demonstrative  pronouns  used  as 

adjectives,  151, 152 
Dependent  clause,  74 
Descriptive  adjectives,  140 
Did  and  done,  203 
Difficult  verb-forms,  199-203 
Do  and  did,  use  of,  241,  242 
Double  negatives,  261 

Emphatic    forms   of  the   verb, 

241,242 

Exclamatory  sentences,  5 
Explanatory     relative     clause, 

134 
Expletives,  244 

Feminine  gender,  115 
Future  tense,  162 
Future  perfect  tense,  195 

Gender,  115,  116 

of  personified  objects,  116 


INDEX 


303 


Have,  conjugation  of,  241-242 
Historical  present,  l6l 

Imperative  mood,  207,  208 
Imperative  sentences,  4,  5 
Impersonal  verbs,  244 
Indefinite  adjectives,  149-151 
Indefinite  article,  20,  146,  147 
Indefinite  pronouns  used  as  ad- 
jectives, 149-151 
Independent  clause,  74 
Independent  use  of  nouns,  62- 

64 

Indicative  mood,  205-207 
Indirect  object,  57,  59,  125 
Indirect  questions,  138 
Indirect   quotations,    138 
Infinitive,  a  verbal  noun,  171- 
178,  182,  183 

an  adjective,  177 

an  adverb,  177,  178 

a  complement,  177 

in  absolute  construction,  178 

equivalent  to  a  clause,  178 

subject  of,  178 

the  sign  to  omitted,  173 
Interjections,  64-65 
Interrogative    adjectives,    148- 

149 

Interrogative  adverbs,  258 
Interrogative     pronouns,     137, 
138 

used  as  adjectives,  148,  149 
Interrogative  sentences,  3,  4,  7 
Intransitive  verbs,  37-39 


Intransitive  verbs,  use  of,  in 
passive,  when  combined 
with  prepositions,  159 

Irregular  comparison  of  adjec- 
tives, 143,  144 
of  adverbs,  258 

Irregular  verbs,  186,  284,  292 

It,  uses  of,  244 

Lie  and  lay,  199 
Limiting  adjectives,  140 

Main  clause,  74,  8 1 

Masculine  gender,  115 

May,  conjugation  of,  234,  235 

Mood,  203-217 

Must,  243 

Neuter  gender,  115 
New  conjugation,  187 
No,  255 
Nominative  case, 

as  subject,  119 

after  the  copula  or  the  copu- 
lative verb,  119 

by  direct  address,  119 

in  exclamations,  119 

as  nominative  absolute,  119 
Nominative  absolute,  119,  248, 

249 

Noun-clauses,  72,  73 
Nouns,  12 

common  and  proper,  13-15 

possessive  form,  23-26 

appositives,  26-28 


304 


INDEX 


Nouns,  predicate  nouns,  43,  44 

used  as  adverbs,  55-57,  125, 
261 

as  indirect  objects,  57-59 

used  independently  by  direct 
address,  105-107 

collective,  108,  109 

number,  109-114 

gender,  115,  116 

case,  117-123 

verbal  nouns,   171-178,  182, 

183 
Number  of  nouns,  109-114 

of  pronouns,  114 

of  verbs,  164,  165 
Numerals,  141 

Object, 

of  a  verb,  35,  125 

of  a  preposition,  52-54,  125 

indirect,  57-59,  125 

as  adverb,  125 

cognate,  159 
Objective  case, 

uses  of,  124,  125 

See  also  Object. 
Objective  complement,  250-253 
Old  conjunction,  187 
Ought,  243 

Parsing,  266  if. 

Parts  of  speech,  defined  and  il- 
lustrated, 86-90 
words  used  as  various,  86,  87, 
266 

Participles,  as  adjectives,  178- 
181,182,  183 


Passive  voice,  156-159,  223,  224 
intransitive  verbs  with  prep- 
osition, 159 
conjugation     of     verbs     in, 

226  if. 

Past  tense,  162 
Past  perfect  tense,  194 
Person   and   number   of  verbs, 

164-171 
special  rules  for  agreement, 

168-171 

Personal  pronouns,  17-19,  126- 
131 

declension,  127 

compound,  129-131 

emphatic,   129 

reflexive,  129 
Phrasal  adverbs,  257 
Phrasal  conjunctions,  82 
Phrasal  prepositions,   53 
Phrases, 

prepositional,  51-55,  121 

infinitive,  173 

participial,   180 
Plural  of  nouns,  109-114 
Positive  degree,  142 
Possessive  case,  123 
Possessive  form  of  nouns,  23- 

26 

Potential  mood,  233 
Potential      verb-phrases,     233- 

238 

Predicate  of  sentence,  8  fF.,  59' 
61 

compound,  84 


INDEX 


305 


Predicate      adjectives,     44-46, 

262,  264-266 
Predicate  nominative,  119,  262, 

263 

Predicate  noun,  43,  44 
Predicate,  simple  and  complete, 

59-61 

Prepositions,  51-53 
Prepositional      phrase,     51-55, 

121 

Present  tense,  160,  161 
Present  perfect  tense,  194 
Principal  parts  of  verbs,  188 
Progressive  verb-phrases,  238- 

241 
Pronouns,  16 

personal,  17-19 

relative,  68-70,  131-137 

indefinite,  149-151 

forms  after  comparisons,  145 

reflexive  use,  129 

used  for  emphasis,  129 
Proper  adjectives,  140 
Proper  nouns,  13-15 
Punctuation,  295 

Reflexive  pronouns,  129 
Regular  verbs,  185 
Relative   pronouns,  68-70,  131- 
137 

introducing  clauses,  131 

antecedent,  131 

declension,  132 

case,  133 

kinds  of  relative  clauses,  1 34- 
135 


Relative  pronouns,  lack  of  an- 
tecedent for  what,  135 
what  introducing  noun-clause, 

136 

compound  relatives,  136 
as  adjectives,  148 
Relative  adjectives,  148 
Restrictive  relative  clauses,  1 34, 

135 

Reviews,  30,  31,  62,  96,  123, 
153,  246,  247,  269,  270- 
280 

Seen  for  saw,  201 
Sentence-adverbs,  255 
Sentences,  kinds,  1-5 

declarative,  1-3 

interrogative,  3,  4 

imperative,  4,  5 

exclamatory,  5 

subject  of,  6 

predicate  of,  8 

analysis,  90-96,  270-281 

simple,  12 

complex,  74-77 

compound,  77-79 

simple   with    compound    ele- 
ments, 84,  85 
Shall  and  will,  190-193 
Should,  233-236 
Simple   and   complete   subject, 

28-30,  103,  104 
Singular  number,  109 
Sit  and  set,  200 
Solemn  style,  164,  165 
Strong  verbs,  185-187,  283 


306 


INDEX 


Subject  of  sentence,  6,  1 1 

simple  and  complete,  28,  103, 

104 

compound,  84 
case  of,  119 

subject  of  an  infinitive,  178 
Subjunctive  mood,  209-215 
conjugation  of,  210 
use  and  meaning  of,  211 
condition  and  conclusion,  212 
doubt  and  uncertainty,  213 
tense,  215 

Subordinate  clauses,  81 
Subordinate  conjunctions,  81 
Superlative  degree,  142 

Tense,  160-163,  189,  190 
in  the  indicative  mood,  206 
in  the  subjunctive  mood,  215 
in  the  imperative  mood,  207 

Than,  form  of  pronoun  after, 
145 

That,  in  restrictive  clause,  135 

There,  an  expletive,  244 

To,  infinitive  sign,  omitted,  173 

Took  and  taken,  203 

Transitive  verbs,  35-37 

Verbs,  31-33 

verb-phrases,  33-35 
transitive,  35-37,  154,  155 
intransitive,  37-39,  154,  155 
state  or  condition,  38 
copula,  40-42 


Verbs,  voice,  156-160 

intransitive  verb  with  prep- 
ositions, 159 

tense,  160-163,  189,  194-198, 
206 

person  and  number,  164-171 

the  infinitive,  171-178 

verbal  nouns  in  ing,  174-176, 
182,  183 

the  participle  a  verbal  adjec- 
tive, 178-181,  182,  183 

strong  and  weak  verbs,  185- 
187,283-294 

regular    and    irregular,  185, 
186 

conjugation,  187 

principal  parts,  188 

shall  and  will,  190-193 

difficult  forms,  199-203 

mood,  203-217 

conjugation    of     the     active 
voice,  218 

passive  voice,  226 

defective,  243 

impersonal,  244 
Voice,  156-160 

Weak  verbs,  185-187,  283-294 
What,  135,  136 
Would,  233 

Words  used  as  various  parts  of 
speech,  86,  87,  266 

Yes,  255 


YC  4980! 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


